My Experience

Nine weeks I’ve spent in this class, learning new techniques on studying, and learning new critical thinking strategies. Nine weeks that I’ve been in school again thinking and challenging myself and learning about a variety of new things. These last nine weeks have reminded me about the long term effects that higher education will have on my future employment and current job. This class has gave me so many tools that I can use in my everyday life. These last nine weeks have helped me get my mechanics back together academically I would say. I been out of school for about six months and I haven’t been reading, just working since I came out of school. Recently in class I relearned how to take Cornell Style notes, it’s like a lost art nowadays this note taking. My experience in this class was great overall for being my first time taking an online class. I enjoyed my time because with my work schedule always varying, this class came in handy letting me log in at times when other classes are long finished. This specific course was helpful in that it helped me see there’s more ways of doing things and not to worry about stressing yourself out. One of the most important things this class taught me was collaborative learning is an important aspect of life. I say that because every time we comment on things the atmosphere on the forum is good because it seems like we were constantly feeding off each others answers. The posts always seemed to drag on and for most of week, and I believe that collaborative learning works best in environments like this. The other most important thing I learned here was the value of setting goals for yourself. Whether they be big or small, important or non important setting goals is helpful in accomplishing certain tasks in a fast and secure manner. What also makes it worth while is when you have a big goal and you have little goals in between set in front of you that you must overcome. To me goal setting has usually made me strive to do things better and faster. I believe that the long term benefits of having a education will help you with employment opportunities. I think that having a degree from University of Phoenix will greatly increase my chances of getting promoted because the school has a name for itself at several different companies. At my job alone we have 7 people that graduated from this school in the past year. I also think that with an education you’re more likely to have stability in the workplace, when there is a mass let go phrase, companies tend to keep their educated employees over noneduacated. The tools and assessments in from this course will help me in my future courses and jobs because one of the tools I learned was goal setting. Which will help me keep focus at the task at hand. I also Learned that its okay to learn different things, in an collaborative environment its okay to feed off each, but not steal each others ideas. Which in my current position at work ripping off peoples ideas is spreading like wildfire. Its like some people at my job have been biten by the copy bug. One of the most useful things I learned in this class was how to use the library. I think a lot us take it for granted because they don’t know how to use it. The library allows me to search for articles pertaining to any subject. Also the library tools such as the plagiarism finder, it checks your paper for any plagiarized material. Also the citiation tool is very helpful because it sites everything for you. So, in conclusion; nine weeks have come and gone. Finishing this class is just a goal I set when I started this program. I think collaborative learning is something that can be useful whether it be in a classroom environment or business environment. This class has taught me if you apply yourself and use critical thinking when striving for a goal you can achieve what you set your mind to. My Experience Nine weeks I’ve spent in this class, learning new techniques on studying, and learning new critical thinking strategies. Nine weeks that I’ve been in school again thinking and challenging myself and learning about a variety of new things. These last nine weeks have reminded me about the long term effects that higher education will have on my future employment and current job. This class has gave me so many tools that I can use in my everyday life. These last nine weeks have helped me get my mechanics back together academically I would say. I been out of school for about six months and I haven’t been reading, just working since I came out of school. Recently in class I relearned how to take Cornell Style notes, it’s like a lost art nowadays this note taking. My experience in this class was great overall for being my first time taking an online class. I enjoyed my time because with my work schedule always varying, this class came in handy letting me log in at times when other classes are long finished. This specific course was helpful in that it helped me see there’s more ways of doing things and not to worry about stressing yourself out. One of the most important things this class taught me was collaborative learning is an important aspect of life. I say that because every time we comment on things the atmosphere on the forum is good because it seems like we were constantly feeding off each others answers. The posts always seemed to drag on and for most of week, and I believe that collaborative learning works best in environments like this. The other most important thing I learned here was the value of setting goals for yourself. Whether they be big or small, important or non important setting goals is helpful in accomplishing certain tasks in a fast and secure manner. What also makes it worth while is when you have a big goal and you have little goals in between set in front of you that you must overcome. To me goal setting has usually made me strive to do things better and faster. I believe that the long term benefits of having a education will help you with employment opportunities. I think that having a degree from University of Phoenix will greatly increase my chances of getting promoted because the school has a name for itself at several different companies. At my job alone we have 7 people that graduated from this school in the past year. I also think that with an education you’re more likely to have stability in the workplace, when there is a mass let go phrase, companies tend to keep their educated employees over noneduacated. The tools and assessments in from this course will help me in my future courses and jobs because one of the tools I learned was goal setting. Which will help me keep focus at the task at hand. I also Learned that its okay to learn different things, in an collaborative environment its okay to feed off each, but not steal each others ideas. Which in my current position at work ripping off peoples ideas is spreading like wildfire. Its like some people at my job have been biten by the copy bug. One of the most useful things I learned in this class was how to use the library. I think a lot us take it for granted because they don’t know how to use it. The library allows me to search for articles pertaining to any subject. Also the library tools such as the plagiarism finder, it checks your paper for any plagiarized material. Also the citiation tool is very helpful because it sites everything for you. So, in conclusion; nine weeks have come and gone. Finishing this class is just a goal I set when I started this program. I think collaborative learning is something that can be useful whether it be in a classroom environment or business environment. This class has taught me if you apply yourself and use critical thinking when striving for a goal you can achieve what you set your mind to.

Samuel Adams

Samuel Adams: An American View of the Stamp Act Samuel Adams writes a letter to his English friend, John Smith, defending the American’s side of the new imperial taxation and control. He describes the colonists thinking of the act as â€Å"both burdensome and unconstitutional. † They feel as if they are not represented as they should be and that their rights as Englishmen are being taken away from them. He goes on to say that Parliament cannot tax them consistent with the constitution because they are not represented. In 1765 England passed a new law called the Stamp Act.This act was meant to replace the sugar act because that act did not work. It taxed all printed items. England felt that they needed to tax the colonies because the colonies were still a part of England and felt that they needed to help pay for the debt that they were in for the war that they had helped fight for the colonies. Benjamin Franklin proposed that if England was to tax the colonies, then they wanted members in the legislature so they could be one people. However, politicians rejected this idea and called Franklin a radical.England felt like the colonies were already represented enough because they had virtual representation and didn’t need to have geographic representation. England said that geographic representation would cost them too much time and hardly any laws would be passed. In this letter Adams says England is increasing their power and wealth at the colonies expense. He argues against the point that England makes saying that the war was to defend the colonies, saying that England didn’t do it for the colonies, but more for advancing their dominion and glory.Samuel Adams had a bias towards the American side. Originally the audience was his friend John Smith. However, since this letter has been published it is more aimed towards the English because it is refuting their side of the Stamp Act and how they thought of it. Samuel Adams is trying to get his point across that he and the rest of America feel under represented. I think that the meaning of this document is to let people know that there is just more than one side to the different acts that England was passing.There was an English side as well as an American side. The point was to show us the different views of each side, and help us realize that it was more of a misunderstanding rather than England wanting to take all control, and America wanting to break away from England. I think that one of the biggest misconceptions most people get from these different acts that eventually led to the revolution, was that America wanted to separate from England. However, this wasn’t the case. America actually wanted to stay a part of the English Empire.America and England just could never see eye to eye, for example how each of them saw America’s representation. This letter helped me better understand why this all these small acts eventually led up to the American revol ution. It made me realize that a lot of history is bias. Usually people only hear or read about one side of things and don’t really think about listening to the other side. To really understand history and better understand why something happened the way it did, it’s better to study each side of it.

What is Crime?

The Oxford English dictionary defines crime as â€Å"an act punishable by law, as being forbidden by statute or injurious to the public welfare, an evil act; an offence, a sin, -an act can only be considered a crime when identified as such by law. An act was defined a crime in the old testament with the creation of the Ten Commandments. This was when it was literally set into stone that numerous acts became a crime against God, the first rules of the world.Crimes are now defined as crimes with the help of the legal system and certain pieces of legislature and cannot always necessarily be traced back to the Ten Commandments. Crime now has abundant definitions, the most obvious being crime as criminal law violation. The Hg Worldwide Legal Directories website delineates criminal law as encompassing, ‘the rules and statutes written by Congress and state legislators dealing with any criminal activity that causes harm to the general public, with penalties.’ Therefore to viola te criminal law, the individual would be engaging in behaviour that is prohibited by the criminal law. However it has recently become extremely difficult to determine what is now perceived as a crime.Crime has no universal or objective existence but is relative to the subjective contingencies of social and historical circumstance, this is crime as historical intervention. For example, causing death of another individual, whether by neglect or with full intention is a crime, however it is almost justifiable and on many occasions heroic when practised in warfare. This is reiterated with the recent poaching ban, poaching only became criminalised through the convergence of new class and power interests in the 18th Century. James Treadwell argues this point as a criminologist and indicates that specific acts that were once socially acceptable are now becoming criminalised, ‘crime is not static or fixed, it constantly changes.Things that once were not criminalised become so, such as paedophiles ‘grooming’ victims on the internet. . .similarly, activities, which were illegal, may become legal, such as consenting homosexual behaviour between men’. These arguments make it hard to define what crime is as the ‘rules’ of crime are ever-changing. The BBC published an online article that illustrates the extent to which crime is uneasily defined, ‘a hundred years ago you could buy opium and cocaine over the counter at Harrods. Acts which are perfectly legal here may be serious crimes in other countries and vice versa.’ To help us understand what makes a crime a crime, Cesare Lombroso, an Italian criminologist introduced to the idea of positivism, the social reaction to classicism.Classicism is the theory that the punishment for a crime should reflect the severity of said crime. This concept was developed during the transition from feudalism to capitalism and is a strong believer that each individual chooses whether to commi t a crime or not as every person is raised in society that outlines the difference between right and wrong. The criticism for this concept is argued that at what age do you become criminally responsible, for example the horrific act of the two young boys that committed a severe crime when kidnapping and torturing Jamie Bulger.The boys were eleven at the time, therefore as children they unfortunately served half the period of time that an adult would have if they had committed this crime due to the legal system believing they were not fully responsible as they had been raised in broken homes. The contrasting theory to this is that of Positivism, the scientific approach to crime. This concept developed by Lombroso attempts to look at the genetic or biological explanation for a criminal gene. This concept is harshly criticised as many members of the public deem this as treating criminality as an illness.Lombroso published a book in which he makes sever references to the concept of posi tivism and argues that people are wrong to fear that, ‘positivism encourages communistic ideas and even worse criminal behaviour’. This became the birth of criminology. Treadwell discusses Lombroso’s work and informs us that his work is still being studied to the modern day, ‘Lombroso’s work could be placed under the heading of biological criminology, investigations of the causes of criminality using more sophisticated research methods. . .have continued to be developed in the twentieth century’.Tim Newburn wrote that Edwin Sutherland defined criminology as, ‘the study of the making of laws, the breaking of laws, and of society’s reaction to the breaking of laws’. Crime can also be defined as social harm. For example, we ask the question are tobacco companies selling harmful products that are in turn, effectively killing us, murderers. Is this a crime? This is known as the crime of violation to human rights, therefore a fur ther definition could be health and safety issues in the workplace. This is reiterated when we discuss ‘white collar crime’.We struggle to define crime as crime is an act  that breaches the criminal law, however many of the people we put in charge of running our countries or deciding these criminal laws are in fact themselves committing crimes. If this is so, why are these crimes socially acceptable? The offences of these crimes tend to be ‘invisible’ or painfully difficult to trace. They are often committed by persons of high social status and respectability therefore they find it easier to evade persecution. ‘White collar crime’ is often broken down into, embezzlement, breaches of health and safety and environmental crimes. Bhopal was identified as one of the worst industrial ‘accidents’ this world had witnessed.The 1984 incident that killed 8000 people instantly and injuring a further 200’000 was believed an accident du e to the lethal gases leaking from Union Carbide’s pesticide factory. For 20 years after this tragedy, an estimated 30 people a month were believed to have died from lung disease, brain damage, cancer, all linking to the gas leak of 1984. This accident was contested in court yet the people involved have yet to receive a settlement fee and not one person was held responsible for this mass homicide. Newburn records Bhopal as a crime and a ‘major industrial disaster’ in his book as he files it under the heading, ‘environmental crime’. This helps us to define crime as a class issue due to crimes of the powerful having greater potential to cause more harm than crimes of the less powerful.Newburn furthermore analyses hidden crimes within criminology, ‘Criminology has been regularly, roundly and rightly criticised for this preoccupation: a concern with the crimes of the powerless rather than the powerful, with the ‘crimes of the streets’ rather than the ‘crimes of the suites’. The Marxist concept of this is crime as an ideological censure, that acts would only be defined a crime when in the interest of the ruling classes at that period of time. These crimes remain hidden for various reasons. The diffusion of responsibility means that is extremely difficult to legally and morally identify a persecutor, secondly a lot of the crimes the general public hear about are in the media and corporate crime simply does not sell. Media coverage creates moral panic and fear of ‘crime’.To define crime we often look to the media to decipher their reaction on a specific incident. However, although crime consumes an enormous amount of media space as both entertainment and news, concepts of crime are mediated by profit margins. Due to only crimes that are considered to grasp the attention of the general  public being reported, this effects what we as an individual define as a crime. Treadwell argues that, à ¢â‚¬Ëœmost media institutions seek to attract as wide an audience as possible to maximise their profits. . .to attract and retain audiences media products have to entertain, be dramatic or exciting, and sometimes cause outright shock’. Therefore as crime is seemingly a troubling aspect of our life this would seem the most appropriate topic to cover.Treadwell labels this concept, ‘newsworthiness’. He goes on to discuss that, ‘Today, crime stories are increasingly selected and ‘produced as media events on the basis of their visual . . . as well as their lexical-verbal . . . potential’. There is a vivid and highly complex relationship between the media and the criminal justice system. A further more obvious way in which we can define crime is by the Home Office statistics. The Home Office websites defines themselves as, ‘the lead government department for immigration and passports, drugs policy, crime, counter-terrorism and police’. T he two main methods of collecting the criminal data that feature in the Home Office are victim surveys and statistics recorded by the police force. However, only particular offences, ‘serious crimes’ are reported by the police to the Home Office statistics, not the summary offences that are heard in the Courts.Police are also under the instruction to record every allegation they hear and many police officers do not believe a number of allegations or there may be a lack of evidence and many times the victims decide to not press charges therefore they see it unfit to record it as a ‘crime’. Furthermore a crime is only a crime when ‘officially’ recorded and since most victims do not report crimes there is a ‘dark figure’ of crime that remains unknown. The reasons to why victims fail to report their crimes can be broken down into three categories: embarrassment, unworthiness and failure to realise. If a victim has been sexually abused or raped they may fail to report this as they may be overwhelmed with a feeling of embarrassment or in certain religious cultures it may bring shame upon a family.Some victims also feel the nature of their crime isn’t worthy of police time, such as rowdy neighbours or petty theft. Finally, if a person is a victim of identity theft, nine times out of ten they fail to realise and therefore have nothing to report. In conclusion, a crime only seemingly exists when society perceive it as a crime or a great reaction to an act therefore labels it as one. An act is  often acceptable until labelled as morally wrong by a social group.At some time or another, some society somewhere has defined almost all forms of behaviour that we now call ‘criminal’ as desirable for the functioning of that society, (Williams (1964:46)), this would be crime as a violation of moral codes. In the BBC article written by Mark Easton, he reiterates that, ‘one cultures crime is another cu ltures social norm’. This concept is crime as a social construct. In 1963 Becker created the ‘Labelling Theory’ which illustrated that crime is dependent upon social reaction and that the societal consensus is regularly challenged.At the beginning of my essay I provided the Oxford dictionary definition for crime and after studying the wide range of criminal concepts I have reached the conclusion that there is no right or wrong answer to define crime. The dictionary defines crime as punishable by law yet also defines crime as a sin. A person will be prosecuted for an act that does not abide by the legislation set up by the criminal justice system, however an individual may go to church to repent a sin that is only deemed as a crime within their religious culture.Crime will forever be surrounded by questions of social order, it will always be contested and people will always wonder how it can be perceived due to the fact that society’s vision of crime change s with the growth and development of society. Crime is elusive, contested and an ever moving concept that is tied to our social processes.

Exegetical Project Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Exegetical Project - Essay Example In Mathew and Mark, Jesus is anointed in the house of Simon Peter the leper. As he sat at a table, a woman came with an alabaster flask containing expensive spikenard oil. She broke it and poured the oil on Jesus’ head. The people around criticized this action as the oil could have been sold for three hundred denarii and given to the poor (Ehrman, 2004). However, Jesus defended her saying that she had done a good work. He says, â€Å"For you have the poor with you always, and whenever you wish you may do them good; but Me you do not have always. She has done what she could. She has come beforehand to anoint My body for burial.† In Luke, a sinful woman anoints Jesus when he was at a Pharisees house where he had been invited for dinner. The woman leaned on Jesus’ feet with an alabaster jar of perfume. She stood behind him weeping then began to wet his feet with her tears. She wiped Jesus’ feet with her hair, kissed them then poured perfume on them. When the Pharisee saw this, he said to himself, â€Å"If this man were a prophet, he would know who is touching him and what kind of woman she is—that she is a sinner.† Jesus replied Simon by telling him the story of a moneylender. One man owed him five denarii while the other owed him fifty but he forgave them both. Then Jesus asked which of the two were happier. Simon replied that the one who was forgiven the most debt was happier. Jesus said that in the same way, â€Å"Therefore, I tell you, her many sins have been forgiven—as her great love has shown. But whoever has been forgiven little loves little† (Ehrman, 2004). In John, Six days after Passover Jesus went to Bethany where Lazarus lived whom he had raised from the dead. A dinner was set in his honor. Mary came with a pint of pure and, an expensive perfume, poured it on Jesus’ feet, and wiped his feet with her hair. However, Judas Iscariot objected saying that that perfume could have been sold and mo ney given to the poor. Jesus replied, â€Å"It was intended that she should save this perfume for the day of my burial. You will always have the poor among you, but you will not always have me.† The four bible stories have certain similarities and differences. In Mathew, Mark, and John, the anointing occurred in Bethany while in Luke the anointing occurred at an unspecified place in Pharisees house. In all the bible stories, women did the anointing. In two of the instances, the women wipe Jesus’ feet with their hair after anointing it. In the other instance, the anointing is done on Jesus’ head instead of his feet. In all the instances, the anointing is done when Jesus is honored by a meal in all the houses. The host in three of the instances was named Simon while the other was Lazarus (Ehrman, 2004). In Mathew and Mark, no specifics are given about the name of the woman in question while in Luke, the woman is described as the woman in the city, which was a sinn er. In John, the woman is Mary the sister of Martha and Lazarus. In all cases, the event took place in Bethany. In Mathew and mark, it is clear that Jesus was in Bethany while in Luke Jesus was from Capernaum and Nain which are on the way to Bethany. In John also, Lazarus lived in Bethany. In Mathew, Mark, and Luke, the alabaster box of precious ointment was used. To Mark and John, the ointment of spikenard was used. In Mathew, Mark, and John, the people around believe that the precious ointment could have been s

Decisions in paradise, Part II Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Decisions in paradise, Part II - Essay Example So, the key here is, organization should aptly study the new territory or market’s business environment and the factors that may impact its operations before embarking on. One of the key decision making technique or tool, which can enable the organizations including ARS Corp to do that study, is SWOT SWOT is an acronym that stands for strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. This business aiding analysis is good for correcting the problems related to strategy, position and direction of an enterprise, it measures a proposition or an idea and it is a subjective assessment of data arranged in a logical order that helps to understand, present, discuss and solve a problem.(Camillus, 1986). With ARS Corp deciding to go for the establishment of a Business School, this tool can be aptly used to study its potential. The strategic planners are required to use SWOT analysis in order to come up with effective strategies. SWOT analysis involves critical examination of organization al strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats. Strengths and weaknesses of an organization are normally brought up by internal factors. (Chapman, n. d.) So, SWOT analysis can be used to find out the strengths and the weaknesses of ARS Corp in relation to its plans in Kava. At the same time, the other two criteria of opportunities and threats can be used to focus on the external environment in the Kava market. In addition, by doing this decision aiding process, SWOT will be able to build on its strengths and opportunities available, and the same correct the weaknesses, and overcome the threats. (Harrison & Pelletier 1999) If these factors are aptly identified and focused, they can be utilized by the decision makers in ARS Corp to make an optimal entry into Kava. When this SWOT analysis is applied regarding ARS Corp’s entry into Kava and its proposed setting up of a Business School, it gives various perspectives. Strength: One of the main strength of ARS Corp in relation to its plan of business school is its previous expertise in business management. As business schools and business management techniques implemented in an organizational setup are much correlated, its management expertise can be analyzed and focused on setting up the business school. The other strength is Business school can be the most cost efficient means of doing business in Kava because of minimum investment and no need for continuous flow of raw materials. Weaknesses: Although, ARS Corp has good business management acumen, its lack of experience in the education sector could put across some challenges. This weakness of ARS Corp could be seen when the process of establishing the business school is started, and also when it is being run. The initial work regarding the formulation of syllabuses and other apt infrastructural needs could be a challenge for ARS Corp considering its lack of experience. Opportunities: Kava has a sizable youth population and all these youths are perfect target customers for ARS Corp. The other key opportunity for ARS Corp through this venture is the elevation of its Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). By setting up a Business school in an underdeveloped region like Kava, and providing the youths with good education can elevate its ethical or CSR image. In addition, well equipped students from this School can be absorbed into ARS Corp’

Assigment 4 - Questions Contemporary World Assignment

Assigment 4 - Questions Contemporary World - Assignment Example Basically, the administration was focused on stockpiling enough nuclear weapons and arsenal to prevent the country in case of an attack from the Soviet Union. The resulting outcome would be so immense that the enemy would be assured of â€Å"total destruction†. This led to the establishment of the philosophy of nuclear deterrence (Brown, 31). The concept of MAD was not only put into practice by the US/USSR but also the Cuban. The concept almost came into practice eight months after McNamara’s speech by the Cuban Missile Crisis. However, the conflict was solved amicably without military intervention. The Korean and Vietnam’s proxy wars played vital roles in the duration of the Cold war. The Vietnam War was major accredited to the latter stages of the development and the start of the cold war. On the other hand, the Korean War mainly contributed to the causes and development of the Cold War. These two wars exhibit some similarities and some contrasts mainly in the causes and development. These include; The Korean war was fought in the early 1950’s. It was characterized by heightened tension that resulted to communist threat to Asian borders. Coincidentally, Korean war coincided with China’s involvement in Cold War. Importantly, the war leads to massive increase in Cold war tensions hence the concept of McCarthyism. The war brought China in the limelight following the decision by US to cross Chinese borders. The stalemate that existed between the two countries signified change in leadership for USSR, hence reduced tension between the countries. The ideas of Glasnost and Gorbachev played a vital role in shaping the current status of Europe. The ideas of Glasnost and Gorbachev were characterized by openness and played a major role in political and economic restructuring of Europe (Gibbs, 17). It is worth noting that these ideologies deviated from the old centralized control and communists that had dominated major parts of

How does Turkey affects the Middle East and especially Syria Essay

How does Turkey affects the Middle East and especially Syria - Essay Example Turkey has been relating very well with most of her neighbors and acts as a model of moderation and mediation in the Middle East. This writing focusses on the position of Turkey regarding Syria as well as her relation with other countries in the region. Turkey is a contiguous transcontinental country lying between Western Asia and Southern Europe making it to act as a link between the Western region and the Middle East region. Turkey has had an increasing involvement with the Middle East in her broader frame of her foreign policy which extends to her relation with Western Allies. Turkey represents a n Islamic democracy which is integral for Western and the Islamic powers. Turkey’s position in the Middle East is seen by some other leaders as unwavering and does not represent the true spirit and opinions of many Turkish (Balci Web). Turkey is one of the powerhouses in that geographical location and neighboring countries wants to better their relationship but we have an unstable and volatile Prime Minister who is drunk and deranged with power so Turkey should not get physically involved with Syria or interfere with their internal affairs. Turkey is such an important nation not only in the Middle East because of her position to expend pronounced efforts to enhance peace, stability, democracy and tolerance in the Middle East. ... The country further plays a major role in distributing energy from Middle East to Europe which is very critical in the global economy. Also Turkey is seen as promoting Islamic democracy because it stands as a modern Islamic country which connects both the Western and the Islamic world (Demirtas Web). Turkey has always acted as a mediator and peace facilitator with her neighbors. It has attempted to democratize the Muslim world in the Middle East. Although seems to be uncertainty concerning her relations with neighbor after the introduction of the â€Å"zero problem with the neighbors† by the AKP regime, Turkey’s conflicts with her neighbors happen to eliminate the doctrine (Demirtas Web). The country has had several concerns which have seen it in an international unwarrantable situation by the fact that Europe tries to ignore her interests such as request for membership in the European Union. Even as Turkey was using her economic and political predominant role amongst h er Muslim neighbors to enhance peace in the region, her neighbors feel that Turkey is alienating them. For instance there has been deterioration of relations between Turkey and Syria, Iraq, Iran and Russia which may negatively impact the country (Candar Web). Entrance of Erdogen as a Prime Minister in 2004 was a major comeback for turkey as it tried to court her neighbors such as Syria and Iran and Ankara too reconciled with Damascus. However, tie between turkey and Syria was very close such that their forces conducted joint maneuvers while their foreign ministers came up with strategic cooperation council (Candar Web). They even signed huge economic contracts but the relationship did

Operations and IT Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Operations and IT Management - Essay Example it is a well organized company with various departments each specializing in executing a function of importance to the overall objective of the company. My tour started with the reception, production department, design and planning section, marketing section, accounts and dispatch section (Young, 2009, p. 14). I also visited the workflow section to learn about the various processes which the balloons go through before it is packaged for sale. Here I learned the various stages in the workflow and how each contributes towards the manufacture of the balloon (Wah, 2004, p. 15). The main lesson learnt was that Cameron virtual factory is one unique factory involved in the manufacture and export of high quality hot air balloons. This product is exported worldwide to various countries and is used to provide an alternative aircraft for use in the sky. The company is divided into departments of which each handling its own task contributing to the final product which is a finished hot air balloon (Wah, 2004, p. 05). The main objective of all these tasked is to satisfy the customer and meet his or her specifications without compromising quality of the company products (Young, 2009, p. 27). The manufacture of the balloon commences with a specification being provided by the customer. This idea with specifications is presented before the designers and sales team who analyses it (Wah, 2004, p. 08). The designers and sales team would work together to come up with a visual representation of how the balloon will look. This is a schematic diagram that is then analyzed further to achieve the final product before commencing the construction process which would take lesser duration comparatively (Young, 2009, p. 24). The drawing is presented to the customer who will approve or disapprove the same. If the customer approves the drawing or rather artwork the sales department will generate a quotation for the work after which the customer will be requested to make initial deposit for the

A Case Examination of Policy for Natural Resource Management Essay

A Case Examination of Policy for Natural Resource Management - Essay Example In terms of public sentiment it’s understood that there is substantial public divide in regards to zoning considerations. The older residents of the town generally reject increased zoning and public policy measures, while the newer residents have sought a more structured policy. Adding to the dilemma are two major land use considerations; namely, the land areas in question contribute in substantial ways to the Albany metropolitan region’s water supply, and an impact on the surrounding natural habitat. In addition to these natural concerns, there are concerns related to changes in the social environment and increased need for infrastructure to meet the demands of development. One of the notable features of the public community is that while older and newer residents disagree on the extent of public control the land should be under, they both are in agreement in regards to the sorts of preservation that should occur. In these regards, the question becomes more one of gove rnmental control than it does of disagreements over the types of measures that should be enacted. Even as the older residents oppose government policy measures, it’s clear that they must be enacted; as such, the following policies represent a compromise between desires for land control and the need for regulatory measures. Zoning In terms of zoning there are a number of concerns that must be addressed when deciding on a course of action. The most overarching concern is the balance that must be achieved between land-use and water supply. This policy reports recommends that a comprehensive investigation be made into the proportion of land use and water supply that is necessary for the adjoining reservoir. In developing a suitable compromise between old and new residents a zoning policy were be enacted with different regulations for current and future residents. Upon determining these figures, zoning will be determined along a proportion system. In these regards, there will be established a policy that balances resident seniority and land size, with zoning policy. Transfer and Purchase of Development Rights; Land Trusts; Differential Property Taxation While current landowners will experience a proportionate allotment of land-use within the specified figures, the transfer and purchase of development right s to future owners will be given increased restrictions. In these regards, individuals seeking to purchase development rights for recreational procedures will only be able to do so within the boundaries of the proportionate measures. Current land owners seeking to transfer development rights to outside parties will need to do so within the proportionate standards that are established by the water supply statistics. This will ensure that the base land needs for the adjoining reservoir will never be circumvented through increased land use. Another major concern of current residents was maintaining the current social climate, as well as the increased infrastructure needs brought on by the new residents. As a means of addressing these concerns it’s recommended that the regional authority institute differential property taxation. In these regards, outside of the proportional restrictions put in place for the adjoining reservoir, there will be no zoning that restricts the developme nt of a specific type of use. However, the regional authority will institute a quarterly tax rate that is designed to regulate the transfer, purchase, and development of property. It is understood that increased taxation on recreational land use will slow down development in this zone. This will ensure that a steady social climate is maintained and that the region has the funding to support increased infrast

Linguistics_Positioning Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Linguistics_Positioning - Essay Example In fact Warren Mashall's admissions have a phenomenal effect on the reader. It's mostly because of him that the reader initially develops a soft corner for Justin. It is rather interesting to note that in a father-son relationship the odds are in Justin's favor which is contrary to normal depiction of family life these days. Kevin Phillips, the lawyer, on the other hand has to jog down memory lane to recollect a character sketch and case history of Justin. His positioning of Justin is of a wannabe alpha male, a man who is willing to knock down some one because he suspects that they hurled abuse about his girlfriend. But Kevin does seem to generalize the case and his assessment of Justin is rather generic. To him Justin is just another case and according to him brawls like this do happen among young drunken men with raging hormones, especially when they happen to be rugby players. Thus even a cursory reading of Kevin's account of the case reveals some inconsistencies with the rest of the narrative. Justin confesses that he is not sure if Mathias ever did say anything to provoke him. In Justin's own words it could have been any one of the bystanders who could have chipped in. But on the contrary Kevin states it for fact that Justin was provoked which resulted in the ensuing brawl. The reader naturally doe sn't fully agree with Kevin's positioning of Justin because there is some room for doubt and the narrative that follows supports this view. Both the positionings are contrary to each other but are not worlds apart. The lawyer tends to generalize because for him this is everyday business. His assessment is based more on the crime and its legal implications and not so much on the client himself. Whereas the father gives a much better insight on the issue and is undoubtedly a much better source of judgment. Task B Positioning the Self Bar-room Brawl The self position in this excerpt is of a man who is at the ends of his nerves and who is simply fed up with the sort of attitude that people are giving him because of his career decision. By the end of the extract, in his own words, Justin snaps at this guy because he has had enough of the wisecracks. But on a parallel plane he is also remorseful of what he did because the guy he hit might not have said anything at all. So to sum it up Justin's self positioning is that of a man who is fed up and pretty much on the brink. No Animosity The self positioning in this part of the narrative is of a lot more toned down person, a person who is in remorse and regret over what he did. His character has shifted to a much more open person and a man changed by his circumstances and experience; the experience being a serious threat of spending significant time in jail. But apart from all this he is a true sportsman because he now respects the man he hit. This is mainly because he now believes that he may have wrongfully hit Mathias. Kevin respects Mathias for not destroying his career because at that time of the incident Mathias was in a position to do so. Thus the shift in self positioning is evident from a person looking for trouble to a person who regrets having done what he did. It is remarkable to see how the narrative plays with Justin's character and the phenomenal shift in his self perception is pretty much evident to the

Negative advertisement when it works Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Negative advertisement when it works - Essay Example Propaganda, in this sense, serves as a corollary to censorship in which the same purpose is achieved, not by filling people's minds with approved information, but by preventing people from being confronted with opposing points of view. What sets propaganda apart from other forms of advocacy is the willingness of the propagandist to change people's understanding through deception and confusion rather than persuasion and understanding. The leaders of an organization know the information to be one sided or untrue, but this may not be true for the regular members who help to disseminate the propaganda. Importantly propaganda is a powerful weapon in war; it is used to dehumanize and create hatred toward a supposed enemy, either internal or external, by creating a false image in the mind. This can be done by using derogatory or racist terms, avoiding some words or by making allegations of enemy atrocities. Most propaganda wars require the home population to feel the enemy has inflicted an injustice, which may be fictitious. The home population must also decide that the cause of their nation is just. Politicians take the advantage of such policy through political advertisement to grab power. EVIDENCES ON HOW PROPAGANDA WORKS AROUND THE GLOBE According to Naom Chomsky, the 20th century has been characterized by three developments of great political importance: the growth of democracy, the growth of corporate power, and the growth of corporate propaganda as a means of protecting corporate power against democracy. Privatization being one of such corporate tactics, propaganda politics began to flourish amongst the democratic nations. In the early 2000s, the United States government developed and freely... This "Negative advertisement when it works" essay describes different cases of the negative ad and its effect. According to Naom Chomsky, the 20th century has been characterized by three developments of great political importance: the growth of democracy, the growth of corporate power, and the growth of corporate propaganda as a means of protecting corporate power against democracy. Privatization being one of such corporate tactics, propaganda politics began to flourish amongst the democratic nations. In the early 2000s, the United States government developed and freely distributed a video game known as America's Army with an intention to encourage players to become interested in joining the U.S. Army. Research proved that 30% of young people who had a positive view of the military said that they had developed that view by playing the game. Politically Soviet propaganda meant dissemination of revolutionary ideas, teachings of Marxism, and theoretical and practical knowledge of Marxis t economics, while agitation meant forming favorable public opinion and stirring up political unrest. The Nazis believed in propaganda as a vital tool in achieving their goals. Adolph Hitler, Germany's Fuehrer, was impressed by the power of Allied propaganda during World War I and believed that it had been a primary cause of the collapse of morale and revolts in the German home front and Navy in 1918. Broadcasters and journalists required prior approval before their works were disseminated. The Nazis produced a number of films and books to spread their beliefs.

Denver International Airport Baggage-Handling System Essay Example for Free

Denver International Airport Baggage-Handling System Essay Critical Factors *A change in the project specifications after the freeze date was agreed up on in the contract. These changes created a domino effect of problems. This was in violation of the contract with BAE which stated there would be a number of freeze dates for mechanical design, software design, and permanent power. *A lack of efficient and effective communication between the city, project management team, and consultants. This manifests itself in basic issues like vendors blocking roadways for other vendors, the city canceling orders for electrical filtering components that were critical path, and too many unilateral decision made because no one was in charge. *A late start with respect to deciding the type of technology to be used for the baggage handling system. BAE didnt even bid on the project because the scope and the timeline were not feasible. The city, under the guidance of Chief Airport Engineer Slinger arranged the deal that included penalty and time clauses for both the city and the vendor. *The City of Denver did not listen to the requested and needed amount of time to actually construct the baggage handling system. The City had a deadline to meet and did not want to hear about any more delays. In spite of this, the vendors wrote contracts that attempted to cover their bases to ensure these deadlines would be met. In the end, extenuating circumstances conspired to prevent these dates from being met. *BAE lost control of their project to the PMT that had no experience in airport construction, baggage handling system technologies, and the introduction of the new technologies. PMT forced BAE to modify their management structure and project approach to fit the PMT needs. BAE had a track record of success using their own management structures. This modification created confusion, inefficiency, and ultimately failure. *2 major changes in personnel. The resignation of the head of the DIA project  in May 1992 and the death of Chief Airport Engineer Slinger in October 1992. Slingers replacement was not able to make decisions without going thru a lengthy process for approval. Slinger managed through the force of his charisma and willingness to take risks and make decisions. His replacement understood the principals but didnt have the bulldozer personality that was necessary for the heroics to get the project completed. Her superiors knew this and retraced the autonomy that was prevalent with Slinger. Without this autonomy and personality, missing deadlines was rampant. *The Citys lack of help for BAE to continue to have their unrestricted access and were unable to makeup from the delays. The City just did not give BAE what they were told they would have in general. The city was in violation of their agreements. *Poor relationship with management. This was evident throughout the project. The initiative started as a political position, gained momentum, and ended in another political dilemma. At the time of this case study, relations between the city, the vendor, and the federal government were rapidly moving towards litigation. There are few instances of attorneys successfully delivering on complex engineering-oriented projects. *Human Capital Restrictions The project needs the best experts to get this thing completed. The restriction of using Denver based contractors in situations should be eliminated. *Finance These guys expected to being servicing the bond debt based on a specific timeline. Since the airport is not open, there is not a revenue stream to support the payment requirements. Re-financing might help take some of the pressure away. *The lackluster economy of the late 80s, the gulf war impact on the airlines, and Continentals chapter 11 collaborated to create additional concerns for the city that distracted them from their mission to manage and deliver the airport. *They city decided long after construction began to implement an airport-wide baggage handling system. Their only smart decision was to contract with BAE to revise the scale of the project they already started with United. Their major mistakes were waiting too long to reach this decision, then tying the hands of BAE once they agreed. The types of technology required for a system this large should have been made much earlier in the facility design process. Delaying this decision resulted in several instances of rebuilding facilities to support more weight, provide more ventilation, and larger payload handling. *This was a build/design project. The idea of making design decisions after construction was underway is an recipe for catastrophe in a project of this magnitude. The citys insistence that this be held to a tight schedule yet allowing multiple design changes was unfortunate. There were too many players, lots of pressure, and the whole project was run by committee with differing agendas. The project administrators had to balance administrative, political, and social imperatives. *the Citys requirements that a percentage of the project be done by local and minority talent hamstrung BAE to deliver. They were forced to hire subcontractors resulting in longer times and higher costs. *The change tracking system took over three years to implement due to the need to make differing technologies play well together and the low priority placed on this by the vendors. *The city invited reporters to preview the first test of the baggage handling system without notifying the vendor. This became a public relations nightmare and added public resentment to the list of problems facing the delivery team. Alternative Solutions Human Resources Because the project has reached a critical state, the project team must recognize the need to bring in the best human capital to be able to complete the project. Thus, it is crucial that the associate director, program manager, city leaders, contract compliance personnel, and DIA coordinator review the current mandate of using local providers. At this point, it would appear that successful completion of the baggage handling system is not only reliant on the specific component itself but several other DIA projects and disciplines such as electrical service. The director and program manager must consider using the necessary experts regardless of the base of origin. Ultimately, the lead decision makers must recognize that completing this project will require the best talent available and eliminate any restrictions on using such resources. Communication and Operational Process The overall communication and operational process requires an improved set of rules by which each party will operate. Each discipline is apparently working within a vacuum environment and do not value the project as a whole. The project leaders must establish an operational charter dictating the rules and enforce such. It appears that the management of the project has occurred from the aspect of individual contractors. Communicating the status of each aspect of this project to a central coordinating team would allow the organization to manage resources from an enterprise project level rather than looking at each contractor as an individual project. City council also needs to let the PMs do their jobs. They need to have the same confidence in Gail Edmond as they did in Slinger before he passed away. Their lack of confidence in Gail Edmond is evident and needs to be resolved in one of two ways. The first is that they give Gail Edmond the same respect as they did for Slinger. City council will not hold extra meetings to give Gail Edmond approval for every decision she makes. The second resolution is that a new PM is brought is that city council has confidence in. This  resolution can put the project way behind schedule. Organization Structure Any shared leadership must be eliminated immediately and the direction of the project must be provided by a specific leader. Furthermore, as part of a communication and operational change, the organization hierarchy should be reviewed. This may involve the creation of a new position such as a relationship coordinator. This individual would be charged with resolving disputes between resources involved in various aspects of the overall project with the specific mission on insuring that resources and disciplines do not compromise the timeline of peer activities within the project. The baggage system team must have complete access to complete their job. Thus, any interruption caused by another discipline should be reported and immediately resolved by the relationship coordinator. In addition to implementing a relationship coordinator, a task force charged with facilitating the successful completion of the project may create some synergies throughout the project as a whole. It is unclear as to whether or not each discipline is aware of the complete picture. A task force could provide a mechanism for eliminating redundant activity, scheduling conflicts, and resolve certain deficiencies that are present and delaying advancement and smooth progression. Finally, at this stage, the project cannot absorb further setbacks as a result of organizational structure or leadership. Thus, implementing personnel redundancies could prove to be a prudent consideration. Key personnel should have a redundant mechanism in place to support any further turnover prior to the completion of the project. Project Specifications It is reasonable to assume that all of the specifications for this project should be frozen. However, it appears that certain parties may not be completely aware of these specifications leading to change requests as  issues are realized. These project specifications must be immediately reviewed. If further changes are going to be requested, these requests must be received immediately. By scheduling a specification meeting, which will likely last for several consecutive days, the director and program manager will be able to confidently freeze the specifications. Finance Situation On a parallel, but separate path, the director and city officials may need to consider re-financing the bond package. The current financing package was established based on a specific timeline. The fact that there is a lack of anticipated cash flow may be causing certain decision makers to engage in activities to get things done quickly rather than done right. Essentially, it appears that moving forward with the right plan will actually lead to completion quicker than moving forward with a fast plan. If indeed decisions are made because of pressure to get things operational therefore leading to a revenue stream to support the debt service, refinancing could relieve this pressure. Relationships All parties must meet immediately. Because the vendor and city are not talking, involving an impartial party to facilitate this meeting would be beneficial. In general, it is crucial for everyone involved to recognize that this situation did not develop overnight, but rather, numerous problems and process issues have lead to the current status. The mission to complete this project and open the airport remains. Thus, the parties must recognize that there are options to moving forward toward completion, address differences, implement process changes, and move forward. Alternative Baggage Handling System The state of the art baggage handling system created by BAE has many issues that need to be worked out. Building the backup baggage handling system and using it while the issues are being worked out from the state of the art  baggage handling system can allow the airport to open sooner and allow the necessary revenues to begin to pay back the bonds. This alternative will allow BAE to properly diagnose and fix all of the issues that the system is currently experiencing. BAE originally told the City of Denver that a project this size should be completed in about 2.5 years.

Role of Merchant Marine for the Allies

Role of Merchant Marine for the Allies ROLE OF MERCHANT MARINE IN SUPPORTING WAR EFFORT IN ASIA PACIFIC IN WORLD WAR II AND LESSONS FOR INDIA INTRODUCTION The men and ships of the Merchant Marine have participated in every landing operation by the United States Marine Corps from Guadalcanal to Iwo Jima and we know they will be at hand with supplies and equipment when American amphibious forces hit the beaches of Japan itself. Lt Gen Alexander A Vandergrift, Commandant US Marine Corps[1] Merchant Marine in the Second World War. The role of merchant marine in World War II (WW II) has been adequately expounded by many scholars. The merchant marine ships as carriers of essential materials both for civilian sustenance as well as for continuance of war effort for both the Allies as well as Axis powers became the raison d etre of some of the most pitched battles during WW II. Control of trans-Atlantic lines of communication for the Allies and their interdiction by the Axis powers led to the Battle of the Atlantic which lasted the entire duration of WW2.[2] Highly publicized and extensively analysed, this battle remains the most epochal sea battle involving merchant marine. The Asia Pacific region on the other hand, witnessed trade warfare of almost equal intensity but on a much lesser scale. The effectiveness of measures employed by both Axis and Allied forces to interdict each others merchant marine in this region decided the outcome of the Pacific war to a large extent. Asia Pacific Reversal of Strategies against Merchant Marine. What lends a modicum of uniqueness to the Asia Pacific region is that the policies adopted by Allies and the Axis powers against merchant shipping here were diametrically opposite to those being adopted by them in the Atlantic theatre at the same point in time. Japan in the Asia Pacific was faced with the same challenges as Great Britian in the Atlantic in terms of dependence on Sea Lines of Communication (SLOCS) for sustaining her war waging effort. Her merchant shipping was being targeted by the US submarine fleet much in the same manner that the German U boats were sinking Allied shipping in the Atlantic. Yet, Japan could not put into place effective convoy tactics similar to those that the Allies employed against the German U boat wolf packs. In addition, Japanese U boats remained largely ineffective in checking the Allied offensive owing to flawed doctrinal approach. Hence, understanding the reasons behind this revers al of strategies towards trade warfare is germane to understanding the overall contribution of merchant marine in the Asia Pacific. Success of Allied Merchant Marine Support. While Japan was economically strangulated through interdiction of her merchant marine, the Allies innovated to keep their ships fighting fit despite an acute lack of bases to do it from. The implementation of Advanced and Floating Bases[3] in the Pacific theatre and the yeoman service provided by Service Squadrons Eight and Ten[4] during the operations in the Asia Pacific region are indeed benchmarks as far as synergising the efforts of merchant marine and the fighting forces is concerned. Effective support of merchant marine proved to be a force multiplier for the Allies and allowed them to successfully wage a war of attrition against Japan. AIM This paper seeks to study the role of merchant marine for the Allies and the Axis powers in the Asia Pacific region in WW II by examining the effects of trade warfare, Naval Control of Shipping (NCS), convoy ops and U boat doctrines on both the sides. The paper would make recommendations relevant to the Indian context with special emphasis on Naval Cooperation and Guidance for Shipping (NCAGS) measures.[5] ALLIED AND AXIS MERCHANT MARINE IN ASIA PACIFIC REGION Requirement of Merchant Shipping Asia Pacific Region Axis Merchant Marine in Asia Pacific. The Axis merchant marine plying the Asia Pacific region belonged entirely to Japan. Prior to the outbreak of war, Japanese merchantmen were employed for transporting oil, iron ore, military hardware, etc. from USA, UK and her colonies and the Dutch East Indies.[6] After Japan attacked Indo China in May 1941, the USA responded with sanctions and cut off all trade. In order to keep the war machine moving, Japan now started importing oil from Indonesia, coal from Manchuria, rubber and iron ore from Malaya. With the outbreak of war, Japanese trade and her merchant marine were extensively plying within the Western Pacific region. One special aspects pertaining to the internal organization of merchant marine in Japan bears mention. Unlike the Allies, where merchant marine requisitioned for war effort was under a single point control, in Japan, merchant shipping was divided between Imperial Japanese Army, Imperial Japanese Navy and Ministry of Communica tion. The absence of a central coordinating agency left the merchant marine fractured in administration eventually leading to wastage of significant amount of tonnage.[7] The Japanese were singularly dependent on their merchant marine for sustaining the war on Allies. At the outbreak of war, Japanese merchant marine was about 6,000,000 tons which was considered just about adequate to meet their national needs.[8] The Japanese, having never been subjected to significant trade warfare did not have a well-defined structure of NCS. Allied Merchant Marine in Asia Pacific. The Allies had a significant merchant marine presence within the Asia Pacific region. The US itself had more than 1700 merchantmen[9] assigned to the Pacific theatre of which 450 merchantmen eventually participated in Pacific theatre combat operations. These ships were awarded Battle stars for their distinguished service.[10] Allied merchant marine in the Asia Pacific while being predominantly of American origin also had generous contribution from Australia, New Zealand, UK, Netherlands and Norway.[11] Movement of merchant ships within the theatre was relatively unopposed as compared to the Atlantic theatre. This was made possible due to an almost negligible Japanese submarine threat. In addition, the Allied NCS procedure were tested and proven in combat thereby streamlining the entire process of merchant marine movements, defensive measures, intelligence gathering, etc.[12] But what posed a significant problem for the Allied war effort was two fold: Lack of Bases for Stockpiling and Repair Activities. The vast expanse of the Pacific Ocean provided very few shore bases to set up stockpiles/ forward bases. This aspect gains significance because the numbers involved in supporting the fighting forces were indeed astronomical. For eg on Efate, the U.S. had seven 1,000-barrel steel tanks for aviation gasoline, two 10,000-gallon Diesel tanks, and four buried 5,000-gallon aviation-gasoline tanks, while at Havannah eight other buried tanks held 5,000 gallons each. In the Tulagi area the U.S. had ten 1,000-barrel tanks plus 12,000 barrels of aviation gasoline, a 60-000-barrel diesel-oil storage, and a 280,000- barrel fuel-oil farm. Guadalcanal added storage for 1,300,000 gallons of aviation gasoline.[13] The condition described above was reached in the initial phases of the offensive. Enhanced Distances of the Pacific.The Pacific Ocean stretches through 135 ° of latitude, 9,600 miles. Its greatest longitudinal extent measures 12,000 miles along latitude 5 ° N, covering an area of 63.8 million square miles.[14] An average voyage across this expanse of water from San Francisco to the closest island outpost in the Solomon Island chain would take in excess of 25 days provided the weather was favourable. Thus moving logistics across this vast expanse was a unique problem. Maintaining continuous flow of materiel in this theatre where an average soldier required 67 pounds of supplies per day was indeed a daunting challenge. Allied Efforts to Surmount Logistical Challenges Setting Up of Allied Mobile Service Squadrons. Based upon the above two peculiarities of the Pacific theatre, Admiral Nimitz ordered setting up of two mobile service squadrons. The basic idea was to use one mobile service squadron to support the fleet till achievement of one military objective. In the meantime, the second mobile service squadron would be set up ahead near the next objective. This way, the Fleet could continue its forward march and the support squadrons would leapfrog ahead.[15] This idea fit in well with the island hopping campaign. The service squadrons were an eclectic mix of naval ships, merchantmen, fleet auxiliaries and a number of specialized vessels. The combination of vessels, surface craft, and auxiliary equipment under the operational administration of the Service Squadron included: provisions stores ships, barracks ships, oil tankers, hospital ships, destroyer tenders, hydrographic survey ships, net cargo ships, net tenders, repair ships, pontoon assembly ships, submarine chasers, motor torpedo boats, picket boats, rearming boats, buoy boats, harbour tugs, salvage tugs, self-propelled lighters, ammunition barges, salvage barges, garbage barges, repair barges, floating dry-docks, degaussing vessels, floating cranes, salvage vessels, net gate barges, and any other type of ship considered necessary.[16] Analysis.A comparative analysis of both the Allied and the Axis merchant marine indicates that at the beginning of the Pacific War, both the forces had relatively high freedom of manoeuver with merchantmen having a clearly understood charter. The Allies had an edge over the Axis merchantmen in that they were under a unified and unambiguous command structure. This edge also extended to the synergistic approach towards their utilization in conjunction with fighting forces. On the contrary, Japanese attitude towards managing affairs pertaining to joint ops with merchant shipping and convoy ops was one of derision. Managing trade and merchantmen did not figure in the classical Mahanian concept of seapower which the Japanese were assiduously emulating and hence gave it only a peripheral treatment.[17] ALLIED TRADE WARFARE VS JAPANESE CONVOY SYSTEM Effect of Trade Warfare Allied U Boat Offensive.The Allied U boat offensive in the Pacific theatre commenced in Jan/Feb 1942. The Allied submarine fleet in the Pacific comprised of submarines from US Navy, the Royal Navy of UK and a few small submarines from the Royal Netherlands Navy. The US Navy adopted an unrestricted submarine warfare policy. In addition to the same, they also adapted Wolf Pack tactics practiced by Germans in the Atlantic to utilize them in the Pacific theatre.[18] The nomenclature selected for the Allied Wolf pack was Coordinated Attack Groups (CAG).[19] The tactics were slightly refined to give more freedom to the submarine commander at sea and control from submarine commander ashore was reduced. Other than minor changes, the spirit of CAG was similar to the Wolf pack. The CAG offensive against Japanese trade proved quite effective. The US submarines alone sank a total of 4,779,902 tons of merchant shipping during the course of the war, in total accounting for 54.6% of all Japanese ve ssel losses.[20] Allied trade warfare thus, succeeded in strangulating Japan and prevented her merchant marine form aiding the war effort. Axis U Boat Ops against Allied Merchant Shipping.Japanese U boats were never tasked by the Japanese Naval High command for an all-out trade warfare role against the Allied merchant shipping. This was attributable to certain flawed doctrinal precepts which shall be discussed subsequently. In the Pacific war, the Japanese submarines have been credited with sinking of 184 merchant vessels amounting to a total of 907, 000 GRT.[21] This kind of a restricted offensive had no effect on the Allied merchant marine. Effect of Convoy System in Asia Pacific Japanese Convoy System. In view of the relentless U Boat onslaught on its shipping the Japanese response was decidedly inadequate. Regular convoy system was put into place only by 1943 by when Allied U boats had already sunk a tenth of the Japanese shipping. The escorts provided for convoys were inadequate numerically as well as in terms of capability. These escorts were ships which had lived their life in the Imperial Japanese Navy and were seconded for lesser important roles. This gross neglect continued till about Mar 1944 when merchant ship losses became prohibitive. The blockade of the Japanese mainland had started to pinch the war waging effort as almost half the Japanese merchant fleet had already been sunk. This is when, serious attention to Japanese convoying efforts was paid by Japanese High Command. The total number of escort units assigned for convoy ops went up from 25 in 1943 to 150 by 1944. Even then the numbers of escorts were inadequate and poor ASW technology did no t prevent losses from U boats in a big way.[22] Poor ASW capability of IJN ships remained its proverbial Achilles heel. This deficiency led to further attrition of not only its merchant shipping but a substantial amount of its combatant fleet as well.[23] By the time Japanese Navy put into place a shipbuilding system for manufacturing specialized ASW platforms they ran out of raw material. And so by 1945, their war machinery as also the economy came to a standstill. Effect on Japanese Convoy Routes.The cumulative effect of Allied U boat offensive and inability of Japanese Navy to offer effective protection to its merchant marine convoys led to abandonment of a large number of point to point routes within the Western Pacific ocean. By 1944, more and more convoys were hugging the coast during their transit making them more vulnerable to threat from mines as well. This led to transit time being doubled in many cases over well-established routes. An extract from Strategic Bombing Survey The War Against Japanese Surface Transportation (1947) is placed at Appendix which depicts the Japanese convoy routes that were abandoned during the course of the Pacific war due to the U boat offensive from Allies.[24] Japanese Submarine Doctrine. Having seen the proactive Allied U boat deployment policy which proved to be so effective against Japanese shipping, it is worthwhile to examine the Japanese U boat doctrine within the same period of time as well. The strong Mahanian outlook of the entire Japanese Naval leadership, who had been bred on tales of crushing defeat meted out to Russia in the Russo Japanese War, led them to adapt a submarine doctrine edificed on the following assumptions[25]: Submarines are suited for use as scouts and must engage enemy surface combatants. They must support the Grand Fleet in the decisive battle. Sinking merchant ships is not consistent with bushido (the way of the warrior) as the enemy can be destroyed by crushing his large combatants.[26] Submarines could be used as effective means for defending island garrisons. Analysis.In a broad stroke, it could be surmised that since the basic premises on which submarine doctrine of the Japanese were based were not sound, the overall exploitation of these assets became unfocussed and suboptimal.[27] The Japanese were forced to cede that their U boats soon became powerless when faced with the superior ASW and technological capabilities of Allied warships. U boats could not defend island outposts of Japan and soon became supply mules for them which was a complete waste of their combat potential. Despite these telling setbacks, the Japanese high command was steadfast in refusing to recognize the effectiveness with which the Germans and later on the Allies exploited U boats. And so was frittered away a potent force which could have altered the face of Pacific war had they been used in an all-out merchant offensive against the Allies near the US West Coast, Hawaii, Australia, New Zealand, the Panama Canal and closer to major Indian ports/choke points. CONCLUSION Factors which Decided the Role of Merchant Marine in the Asia Pacific Region. During the course of the analysis of the role played by merchant marine in the Asia Pacific region in support of the war waging effort of both Allies and the Axis powers during WW II, the following major factors could be surmised: Trade Warfare.It is beyond doubt that the war in the Asia Pacific was one of logistics in its simplest form. The Allied forces built up a phenomenal logistics chain through synergised use of merchant marine in conjunction with fighting forces. The aim of the Allies was to effectively use this logistics stockpile to support their forces so as to cut the logistics lines of Axis powers. In cutting the Axis SLOCS, the aim was again to interdict Axis merchant marine which was the veritable lifeline of Japan. Hence both sides were inexorably dependent on their merchant marine for sustaining their war waging efforts. The role of merchant marine for both the side was pivotal. In this scenario, successful application of trade warfare allowed Allies to strangulate Japan and achieve significant advantage. Naval Control of Shipping. The major difference which contributed in a large way towards the overall effectiveness of Allied merchant shipping was the astute single point command and control. The Allies were fully aware of the importance of merchant shipping and had learnt their lessons well from the Atlantic theatre. On the contrary, Japanese shipping was divided between the Imperial Army, Imperial Navy and the govt with no central agency overseeing their functioning and utilization. This led to avoidable wastage of precious mercantile effort. Poor administration on part of the Japanese also led to non-implementation of convoy system in the early stages of war. Lack of effective NCS resulted in significant destruction of merchant marine which led to their economic strangulation and paved the way for their ultimate defeat at the hands of the Allies. Convoy System.The Allies did not have the need to implement a strict convoy system in the Asia Pacific unlike in the Atlantic theatre. This was due to an almost complete absence of Japanese submarine threat. The Axis shipping while in desperate need of effective convoy ops in the face of overwhelming U boat threat never got its act together while there was still time. By the time convoy ops were implemented by the Japanese, Allied U boats had inflicted irreversible losses on Axis shipping. The numerical and technical deficiencies of the Axis escort forces which were finally assigned for convoy ops only facilitated the attrition of Axis shipping which contributed in a big way to the ultimate Japanese defeat. Hence, ineffective implementation of convoy system by the Japanese prevented their merchant marine from playing a key enablers role to the war effort at the most crucial time during the Pacific war. U Boat Doctrines. The Allies took a leaf out the Axis powers Wolf pack tactics and implemented the same with great success against Japanese shipping. This was made possible due to a realistic approach by the Allied Naval leadership. The Axis powers on the other hand showed a complete lack of imagination in exploiting the U boat forces that they had. Rather than target Allied merchant shipping in a tit-for-tat manner, the Japanese U boats were frittered away on supply missions to outlying garrison islands and audacious reconnaissance missions which ultimately did nothing to further Japanese objectives. The Allies in fact won the war on Japanese merchant shipping by astute application of their potent U boat fleet with an aggressive doctrine. RECOMMENDATIONS NCAGS for Protection of Merchant Marine in Conflict and Peace Amongst all the factors that have been enumerated above, one factor that stands out as a significant contributor to the destruction of Japanese merchant marine was their lack of well evolved NCS procedures. The effectiveness of NCS has been proved both in war and in peacetime operations over the last century. The most recent example of successful application of these time tested procedures can be seen in the escort operations being conducted by IN, PLA(N) and Russian Navy in the Gulf of Aden for protecting ships from the scourge of Piracy. NCS and NCAGS in the Indian Context. Specifically, in the Indian context, NCS and NCAGS are both mentioned as distinct military roles in times of conflict in the maritime strategy document, Ensuring Secure Seas Indian Maritime Security Strategy. However, no further amplification on the ambit of operations is provided therein.[28] The Australian Maritime Doctrine (non NATO member) defines NCAGS as The provision of military cooperation, guidance, advice, assistance and supervision to merchant shipping to enhance the safety of participating merchant ships and to support military operations. (BR 1806).[29] Certain amplification of the scope of NCAGS is also provided in the doctrine to the extent that the overall aim of the operation becomes clear.[30] Need for Guidance Document on NCAGS.Presently there do not exist any Indian guidance/ policy documents in the open domain with regards to NCS/ NCAGS which are accessible to merchant mariners. It is recommended that the ambit of operations envisaged under NCAGS could be defined in an unclassified guidance document. In specifying a scope for these operations we could consider the NATO Allied publication in this regard which has evolved from the Wartime Instructions for US Merchant vessels of WW II.[31] This NATO publication incorporates actions for a number of non-traditional threats which plague merchant marine in the present day. Promulgation of such a document would lay out the basic guidelines for co-operation with merchant men. This document could be used to lay out the terms of reference for carrying out Anti-piracy escort ops in Gulf of Aden. Once a policy/ guidance document is promulgated, a foundation for mercantile-military cooperation is laid for building up further. Participation/ Observer Status in NATO NCAGS Exercises.NATO member navies conduct NCAGS exercises like Bell Buoy and Lucky Mariner where member nations represented by NCAGS staff and merchant marine community come together in order to jointly exercise civil military response to a global threat scenario to shipping.[32] It would be worthwhile to have suitable Naval reps from IN attend these exercises either as participants or observers. This would allow us to remain in tune with the current developments in this field. Based on experience gained in such exercises, we could have our own scenario based exercises. BIBLIOGRAPHY Books Bagnasco, Erminio. Submarines of World War II. Annapolis. Maryland: Naval (1977) Blair, Clay. Silent Victory: The US Submarine War Against Japan. Naval Institute Press, 2001. Carter, Worral Reed. Beans, Bullets, and Black Oil: The Story of Fleet Logistics Afloat in the Pacific During World War II. Washington. DC: Department of the Navy (1953). Dyer, George C. Naval Logistics. (USNI Press, Maryland) 1962. Hughes, Terry and Costello, John. The Battle of the Atlantic, New York: Dial Press,1977. Huston, James A. The Sinews of War: Army Logistics; 1775-1953. Vol. 2. Government Printing Office, 1966 Milner, M. (2008). The Battle That Had To Be Won. Naval History, 22(3), 12-21. Nitobe, InazÃ…Â . Bushido, The Soul Of Japan: An Exposition Of Japanese Thought. GP PutnamsÃÅ'â€Å" sons, 1905 Smith, Steven Trent. Wolf Pack: The American Submarine Strategy that Helped Defeat Japan. Wiley, 2003 Vego, Milan. Operational Warfare At Sea: Theory And Practice. Routledge, 2008. Willmott, Hedley Paul. The Last Century of Sea Power: From Washington to Tokyo, 1922-1945. Vol. 2. Indiana University Press, 2010. 2.Collections. Hansen Kenneth P, Canadian Naval Operational Logistics: Lessons Learned, Lost, and Relearned? The Northern Mariner/le marin du nord, XX No. 4, (October 2010) Hoffman, F. G. The American Wolf Packs A Case Study in Wartime Adaptation JFQ 80, 1st Quarter 2016 Richard J. Smethurst, Japan, the United States, and the Road to World War II in the Pacific The Asia-Pacific Journal, Vol 10, Issue 37, No. 4, September 10, 2012 3.Documents. ATP-02.1 Naval Cooperation And Guidance For Shipping (NCAGS) Guide To Owners, Operators, Masters And Officers Edition A Version 1 September 2014 Clem Lack, B.A., Dip. Jour., Public Relations Officer, Premiers Department, Brisbane. Australias Merchant Navy, Read at the meeting of The Historical Society of Queensland on October 24, 1957 Department of Defense, Washington, D.C. World War II Informational Fact Sheets.1995, ED 406 277 Giesler Patricia, Valour at Sea Canadas Merchant Navy, Her Majesty the Queen in Right of Canada represented by the Minister of Veterans Affairs, 2005 Indian Naval Strategic Publication 1.2 Oct 2015, Ensuring Secure Seas Indian Maritime Security Strategy, Integrated Headquarters, Ministry of Defence (Navy) Linn, James, Supplying the Asia-Pacific Theater: United States Logistics and the American Merchant Marine in World War II (2016) University of New Orleans Theses and Dissertations. Paper 2167. ONeil, William D. Military Transformation as a Competitive Systemic Process: The Case of Japan and the United States between the World Wars. No. CRS-D0008616. A1. Center For Naval Analyses Alexandria VA, 2003. RAN Doctrine 1 2010, Australian Maritime Doctrine Dussault Sheyla, Naval Cooperation and Guidance For Shipping : Giving an old tool a new role in Canadas Maritime Security, Royal Canadian Navy, Apr 09 United States Strategic Bombing Survey.(1947). The War Against Japanese Transportation, 1941-1945. [Washington] Wigmore Greg A Debt Of Shame Repaid: Canadian Merchant Navy Veterans And Their Struggle For Compensation, Carleton University, Canada 4.Electronic Media/Websites (ab)http://combinedfleet.com/ss.htm (ac)http://forum.axishistory.com/viewtopic.php?t=179117. http://ww6.enjoy.ne.jp/~iwashige/escorttext.htm http://www.apnewsarchive.com/1987/Ship-Losses-in-Tanker-War-One-Third-Total-Sinkings-in-WWII/id-fa55fe8e5a8a2a706f9d700df38fe247 http://www.alliedmerchantnavy.com/amn/canada/info-resources.html http://www.britannica.com/place/Pacific-Ocean http://www.history.co.uk/study-topics/history-of-ww2/pacific-and-philippines http://www.ibiblio.org/hyperwar/Japan/IJN/JANAC-Losses/JANAC-Losses-6.html http://www.merchantshipsozww2.com/about.php http://www.navweaps.com/Weapons/WAMJAP_ASW.php Japanese ASW weapons http://www.usmm.org/battleatlantic.html http://www.usmm.org/battlepacific.html http://www.usmm.org/ww2.html http://www.ww2incolor.com/forum/showthread.php/6399-IJN-Submarine-Doctrine Total no of words: 5373. No of words excluding articles, footnotes, bibliography and digits: 4115 [1] http://www.usmm.org/ww2.html (accessed on 12 Sep 16) [2] Milner, M. (2008). The Battle That Had To Be Won. Naval History, 22(3), 12-21. Retrieved from http://search.proquest.com/docview/203459633?accountid=132150 The Battle of the Atlantic started on 3 September 1939 when U-30 sank the small British liner Athenia west of Ireland, and it ended on 7 May 1945 when U-2336 sank two small steamers in the North Sea off Newcastle, England. [3] George C Dyer,. Naval Logistics. (USNI Press, Maryland) 1962. p 119 [4] Worral Reed Carter,. Beans, Bullets, and Black Oil: The Story of Fleet Logistics Afloat in the Pacific During World War II. Washington. DC: Department of the Navy (1953). p 95, Chapter X [5] Indian Naval Strategic Publication 1.2 Oct 2015, Ensuring Secure Seas Indian Maritime Security Strategy, Integrated Headquarters, Ministry of Defence (Navy) p 73 [6] Richard J. Smethurst, Japan, the United States, and the Road to World War II in the Pacific,

Impact of ELL Inclusion on Teaching

Impact of ELL Inclusion on Teaching CHAPTER ONE Introduction Over the course of time, major laws, policy documents and landmark decisions of the U.S. Supreme Court as well as other federal and state courts regarding bilingual education have shaped educational policy in the United States. The Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, a response to Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954), established the constitutional basis for the educational rights of language minority students. Within a decade, Title VI Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited discrimination in federally funded programs. Subsequently cited in many court cases, it basically stated that a student has a right to meaningful and effective instruction. In 1974 the US Supreme Court reaffirmed the 1970 Memorandum regarding denial of access and participation in an educational program due to inability to speak or understand English. This action was the result of the Lau vs. Nichols class action suit brought by Chinese speaking students in San Francisco against the school district in 1974. There is no equality of treatment by providing students with the same facilities, textbooks, teachers and curriculum, for students who do not understand English are effectively foreclosed from any meaningful education. The memorandum further affirmed that Basic English skills are at the very core of what public schools teach. Imposition of a requirement that, before a child can effectively participate in the educational program, he must already have acquired those basic skills is to make a mockery of public education (Lau vs. Nichols, 1974). In accordance with what are known as the Lau Remedies, in 1975 the Department of Health, Education and Welfare (HEW) established some basic guidelines for schools with Limited English Proficient (LEP) students. Although there has been much change in terms of public policy, the ultimate challenge of implementation rests upon the teacher. Throughout the United States public school teachers are challenged to meet the needs of an ever-increasing number of English-language learner (ELL) population. By the turn of this last century, the population of students identified as limited English proficient (LEP) has grown exponentially. From 1995 to 2001 alone, the LEP population grew approximately 105% nationwide (Kindler, 2002). According to recent estimates there are 4.5 million LEP students are currently enrolled in K-12 public schools in the United States. U.S. Census Bureau estimates indicate a continued trend of linguistic diversification in the years ahead (U.S. Census Bureau, 2000). Due to a linguistic shift the student population is experiencing, the educational community has had to fix its focus upon multilingual classrooms, and research set in multilingual classrooms has risen in importance. While there are specialists who work with limited or non-English speaking students initially, the students integration into a m ultilingual i.e. mainstream classroom is essential. Hence, teacher attitudes are an important consideration in terms of relevant professional preparation. Statement of the Research Problem Despite the amount of research being conducted in regard to bi-lingual education, there is a lack of information in the educational community regarding teacher attitudes toward including English-language learners in mainstream classrooms. There exists a void in the area of research concerning mainstream teacher perspectives on ELL inclusion. As an array of societal attitudes develop regarding ELLs, so to do teacher attitudes. As members of the communities they live in, teachers cannot help but be influenced by dominant societal attitudes. When teachers internalize dominant societal messages, they bring them directly into their schools and classrooms. School administrators, other school staff and parents all internalize societal messages, creating a school ethos that mirrors that of the community and the dominant order of society at large (Walker, Schafer and Liams, 2004). Of particular interest to this researcher are the experiences of secondary teachers, especially within the Long Island region. Because this area, which despite its cultural diversity has received so little attention from the research community, the design of this study will be driven by the need to help remedy that paucity of research by examining secondary mainstream teacher attitudes and perceptions of ELL inclusion from a regional perspective. Purpose of the Research The general purpose of this study therefore has been to broaden the existing body of knowledge by identifying teacher perceptions of the impact of ELL inclusion upon their teaching, measure teachers perceived impact of inclusion on the teaching environment, and assess teacher attitudes concerning ELLs. This study also provides data which highlights areas which require attention or resolution. Research Questions Upon review of two studies, one by Reeves (2004), and another by Walker, Schafer and Liams (2004) of secondary teachers experiences with ELL inclusion, questions were developed to examine secondary teachers attitudes and perceptions of ELL inclusion in mainstream classes. Upon review of these studies four significant themes surfaced. The Reeves study, albeit larger in scale, provided a sound basis for this treatment. Those salient themes became the following research questions which have guided this study: 1. Inclusion in mainstream classes: What are teacher attitudes toward ELL inclusion in mainstream classes? 2. Modification of coursework for ELLs: What are teacher attitudes toward the modification of coursework for ELLs? 3. ESL professional development: What are teacher attitudes toward ESL professional development? 4. Teacher perceptions of second-language acquisition processes: What are teacher perceptions of second-language acquisition processes? (Reeves, 2004) Definition of Terms There are several terms that need to be defined for clarity of understanding. These are: Bi-lingual: The ability to speak two languages easily and naturally ESL: English as a second language ELL: English language learner, TESOL: Teaching English for speakers of other languages Mainstream: Mainstream in the context of education is a term that refers to classes and/or curricula common to the majority of students. Participants and Setting All subject-area teachers were from 3 district high schools within a 25 mile radius of this researcher have participated in the survey by mail. The faculties chosen for participation in the study were from the three high schools with the largest population of ESL students during the 2008-2009 school years. This was determined by use of public domain resources (www.city-data.com). High schools with the largest ESL student populations were identified to enable access to the largest number of teachers who had working with ESL-inclusive class loads. Participants were surveyed remotely via mail during the month of July 2009. CHAPTER TWO As an array of societal attitudes develop regarding ELLs, so to do teacher attitudes. Although there exists a void exists in the area of research concerning mainstream teacher perspectives on ELL inclusion, this review of the literature will provide a basis for further inquiry. Literature review According to the National Center for Education Statistics (2002), English Language Learners number over five million ELLs in the United States. This number has risen by 57% over the past ten years and shows no sign of slowing. Within the Long Island region (the focus area of this research), schools continue to experience steady growth in the number of LEP students. In 2007 the number of the students having limited English proficiency reached seven-year high. The appearance of these recent demographic changes requires increasingly greater self-examination within the educational community since teaching and learning is indeed a two-way exchange. The proliferation of professional literature throughout the educational community is evidence that the shifting demographic is being explored, and hopefully addressed in a number of ways. According to Ballyntyne, Sanderman and Levy (2008), more and more teachers of mainstream general education classes, who normally do not have special training in ESOL or bilingual education, are faced with the challenge of educating these children. While research exploring the perspective of ELLs is abundant (Cummins, 2000; Fu, 1995; Harklau, 1994, 1999, 2000; Lucas,1997; Lucas, Henze, Donato, 1990; Mace-Matluck, Alexander-Kasparik, Queen, 1998; Valdes, 2001), research concerning mainstream teacher perspectives on ELL inclusion strikingly absent. This section will examine the insights which can be gained from the existing research as a basis for further research. Attitudes Toward Inclusion Although there has been relatively little research in the area of teacher attitudes toward ELL inclusion, a number of qualitative studies exploring the schooling experiences of ELLs have, at least peripherally, addressed the subject. Those teachers chronicled in the studies were portrayed as holding negative, antipathetic attitudes (Fu, 1995; Olsen, 1997; Verplatse; Valdes, 1998, 2001). There were also some positive, welcoming attitudes noted however (Harklau, 2000; Reeves, 2004; Fu, 1995). Olson (1997) conducted an ethnographic study of a California high school, which had seen large demographic changes in a 20-year period. At the time of her research, the school population had shifted from 75 percent to 33 percent over a 20-year period. The remaining students were 26 percent Hispanic, 14 percent African American and 26 percent Asian. About half the students spoke a language other than English at home. The racial composition of the staff was mostly white. Based upon the study, Olsen concluded that typical to the process of Americanization, newcomers to these United States in our high schools undergo academic marginalization and separation. She asserts that there is pressure to become English-speaking and to drop ones native language in order to participate in the academic and social life of the high school. In his study, Fu (1995) concurs, observing that English teachers and untrained ESL tutors used methodologies and had attitudes which could be characterized as typical. Most showed strict adherence to curricular demands, appeared frustrated by the additional workload or lower standards the students possibly represented for them, and in the field of second language acquisition, lacked adequate understanding. Fu further noted that the teachers had low expectations, gave complicated explanations, lacked sufficient time, and used outdated approaches. Valdes (1998), who reached similar conclusions, observed four students within classroom interactions, interviewed school personnel, and conducted independent, formal assessments of Spanish and English language development at the beginning and end of each academic year when possible. Valdes (1998) argues that English language teaching for most immigrant students in the United States is ineffective because it is rarely meaningful or purposeful; uses outdated methods; is often taught by untrained, if well-intentioned, teachers; and erroneously places blame for lack of progress on the student. Fu (1995) suggests that second language learners from the United States are often perceived by teachers as inferior in comparison to English language students who are of a different class. Teacher perceptions of ELLs can affect educational outcomes in a number of ways. This is supported by Harklau (1999) who conducted a study of about 100 ESL/LEP students in a suburban high school in northern California over 3 years. The research compared their experiences in mainstream content classes and ESL classes. She concluded that tracking of ESL learners into low-track content classes can have serious long-term negative educational and occupational consequences. She concludes that much greater interaction between mainstream and ESL teachers is needed. Although teachers in the above studies, were generally found holding ambivalent or inhospitable attitudes (Harklau,1999; Verplaetse,1998), there were notable exceptions. According to Fu (1995), when some teachers were able to achieve curricular goals by allowing the students their own personal and cultural connections to the material, they were gratified by the results. It has been suggested by researchers that a number of factors that could be influential in how teacher attitudes are determined, whether they be welcoming or unwelcoming in nature. Reeves (2004) notes three categories which emerge as preeminent: (a) teacher perceptions of the impact of ELL inclusion on themselves, (b) impact of inclusion on the learning environment, and (c) teacher attitudes and perceptions of ELLs themselves. In a study by Youngs (1999), teachers cite a chronic lack of time to address Ells unique classroom needs. Additionally there exists an apprehension among some teachers based upon the perception that workloads will become unmanageable when ELLs are integrated into the mainstream classes. Verplaetse (1998) adds that some professionals expressed feelings of inadequacy to work with ELLs. The impact of inclusion on the classroom learning environment, has lead to teacher concerns about the possibility that ELLs will in some way hinder class progress through the curri culum (Youngs, 2001), or may even create inequities in educational opportunities for the students as a whole (Platt, Harper, Mendoza, 2003; Reeves, 2004; Schmidt, 2000). More recently subject-area teacher attitudes and perceptions of ELLs have become emergent topics of research, including an unwillingness to work with low-proficiency ELLs as well as misconceptions about the processes of second-language acquisition (Olsen,1997; Reeves, 2004; 2000). Additionally, assumptions about the race and ethnicity (both positive and negative) of ELLs are cited (Harklau, 2000; Valdes, 2001). It is important to note that all of the aforementioned studies were qualitative in nature. Furthermore, the number of teachers as participants was small; few focused primarily upon mainstream teachers. In their quantitative study of 143 middle school teachers, Youngs and Youngs (2001) conducted an investigated the attitudes of mainstream teachers toward ESL students in middle and high schools. In the mainstream, they conclude the most pervasive attitudes toward teaching an ESL student in the mainstream ranged from neutral to slightly positive. Gitlin, Buenda, Crosland, Doumbia (2003) conducted a qualitative study observed 5 ESL teachers, 10 white students, the ESL program director, and a school administrator. Their interviews centered on how these individuals viewed the ESL program, classroom practices, and cultural relations in the school. They identified and analyzed documents on extracurricular participation by ESL students, on school discipline, and on busing policies. In characterizing teacher attitudes, the researchers concluded that Many teachers equate cultural difference with cultural deficiency, a stance that typically leads them to stereotype students as having problems to fix and may lead to less satisfaction and sense of success in teaching (Gitlin, Buendia, Crosland, Doumbia,2003). In addition to lack of experience and training, matters are compounded by a lack of additional communication with ESL teachers. Attitudes Toward Modification According to Valdes (2001), the growing acceptance of an inclusion model for meeting the needs of ELLs is due at least due in part to an increased emphasis on accountability and standards that has been further driven by what Nieto (2002) asserts is a long history of exclusionary schooling, characterized by programs which are peripheral in nature. Historically, the traditional ESL model placed students in ESL courses where the focus was upon sheltered instruction, and recieved limited access to content-oriented curriculum needed to meet their educational needs or to fulfill graduation requirements. Research however suggests that this approach runs counter to inclusion. Harklaus (1994) study reveals that the ESL instruction which was provided did not match ESL students academic needs in mainstream classrooms and that content-area classrooms were not matched with ESLs needs. Harklau (1994) observes that the curriculum of ESL and mainstream classes was disconnected and that the mainstrea m classes failed to engage ESL students in academic language learning. Echevarria, Vogt and Short (2004) note that programs which are well-implemented, cognitively challenging, not segregated, are key to ESL students academic success. Nieto (2002) adds that education should be adapted or modified to meet the needs of ELLs. For an educational model to be inclusive, it must provide equitable access to curriculum, while simultaneously providing for the multi-lingual array of learners i.e. educational methods must make content understandable for students learning English while remaining effective for English-proficient students. Echevarria, Vogt and Short (2004) however, report that high school content area teachers were seldom found to adjust instruction to make curriculum comprehensible for ELL students. Harklau (1994) observes that ELL students had difficulty understanding certain types of teacher talk: Learners had particular difficulty understanding teacher talk which contained pun s or was sarcastic or ironic . . . Learners were also frustrated with teachers who habitually spoke very fast, who used frequent asides, or who were prone to sudden departures from the instructional topic at hand (Harklau, 1994, p. 249). Youngs (1999) cites that some teachers attitudes concerning modification appeared to stem frustration with lack of time, unclear expectations and lack of collaboration with ELL teachers. Attitudes Toward Professional Development Although ELLs spend the bulk of their time in content-area classrooms, little research has been conducted regarding content-area teachers attitudes toward professional development. Of the research that has been conducted, content-area teachers reported that they had limited experience with ESLs and lacked the necessary training in working with ELLs. This is supported by the findings of Youngs and Youngs (2001) study which concludes few mainstream teachers have been prepared to address the linguistic challenges and cultural differences present in diverse classrooms (Youngs Youngs, 2001, p. 101). In an inclusive model, the majority of the students time during the school day is spent in mainstream classes, with the addition of ESL classes as needed. Nieto (2002) maintains that teachers must possess knowledge of the history of specific cultural groups they are serving in the United States. Additionally adaptation of the curriculum for English language learners is also essential. Nieto m aintains that the teacher must develop competence in pedagogical approaches suitable for different cultural groups in United States schools. Researchers have also reported limited institutional supports such as guidance from the school administrators as well as lack of time and resources. Reeves (2004) study reports most content-area teachers would like to help ELLs but tended to vary in terms of their expectations for ELLs. Research also suggests considerable frustration among content-area teachers, concluding that in addition to lack of experience and training, there is also a lack of additional communication with ESL teachers. Youngs and Youngs (2001) maintain that few mainstream teachers have been prepared to address the linguistic challenges and cultural differences present in diverse classrooms (p. 101). As cited by Reeves (2004), a study by Clair (1995) documents three teachers views of professional development. All three of Clairs participants (Grades 4, 5, and 10) opted out of voluntary in-service workshops on methods of working with ELLs. Among the reasons given for opting out were as follows: One teacher stated that the workshops presented methods and materials that were inappropriate for her classroom, while the other two subject teachers maintained already well prepared to work with ELLs The two remaining teachers, maintained that as experienced teachers of English-proficient students, they were already well prepared to work with ELLs. One possibly insightful comment by one of the teachers was, As far as teaching goes, teaching is the same no matter what kind of kids you have (Clair, 1995, p. 191). Although Clairs (1995) study, tapped data from only a small group of teachers, it provided a rationale for more extensive studies of educators attitudes toward ESL professional development based upon a larger sample. Teacher Attitudes toward Language Acquisition Research indicates that mainstream teachers often lack knowledge in the area of language acquisition. Nieto (2002) maintains that all practicing teachers need to develop knowledge in the areas of: first and second language acquisition and the socio-cultural and sociopolitical context of education in the United States. The degree to which teachers are informed in this area may indeed shape attitudes in regard to ELL learning rate and capacity. In her study, Reeves (2004) survey queried teacher perceptions of the length of time that ESL students needed to acquire English proficiency. Most (71.7%) teachers agreed that ESL students should be able to acquire English within two years of enrolling in U.S. schools (p.137). Teacher perceptions that two years is sufficient for full-language proficiency is not supported by research; this misconception may lead teachers to faulty conclusions concerning ELLs language ability, intelligence, or motivation. Although the average student can develop c onversational fluency within two to five years, research has shown that that developing fluency in more technical, academic language can take from four to seven years. This is dependent on a number of factors such as language proficiency level, age and time of arrival at school, level of academic proficiency in the native language, and the degree of support for achieving academic proficiency (Cummins, 1981, 1996; Hakuta, Butler, Witt, 2000; Thomas Collier, 1997). The review of the research literature has revealed several important factors which shape teachers attitudes of ELLs: knowledge of the history of specific cultural groups they are serving; competence in pedagogical approaches suitable for different cultural groups; depth of knowledge in the area language acquisition; and the communication with the ESL teacher. CHAPTER THREE Statement of the Research Problem Despite the amount of research being conducted in regard to bi-lingual education, there is a lack of information in the educational community regarding teacher attitudes toward including English-language learners in mainstream classrooms. There exists a void in the area of research concerning mainstream teacher perspectives on ELL inclusion. As an array of societal attitudes develop regarding ELLs, so do teacher attitudes. Of particular interest to this researcher are the experiences of secondary teachers, especially within the Long Island region. Because this area, which despite its cultural diversity has received so little attention from the research community, the design of this study has been driven by the need to help remedy that paucity of research by examining secondary mainstream teacher attitudes and perceptions of ELL inclusion from a regional perspective. Instrumentation The instrument used was designed to measure both teacher attitudes and perceptions of the inclusion of ELLs. Its four sections correlate to the aforementioned themes previously discussed. The first section Section A- addressed teachers attitudes toward ELL and ESL inclusion. A Likert-scale was used to gauge teachers extent of agreement or disagreement with 16 statements presented in relation to that focus area. Section Bmeasured the frequency of various practices and activities among teachers with ELLs in their classrooms, in relation to coursework modification . Section C utilized open-ended questions in concerns which focused upon ELL inclusion. The rationale for this was that open-ended questions allow for more individualized responses, but they are sometimes more difficult to interpret. The Section Dgathered demographic information. I chose to remain faithful to the format of the Reeves study (2004), because unlike the study conducted by Walker, Schafer and Liams (2004), this ins trument model utilized multiple statements, rather than a singular item, to gauge teachers attitudes. Teachers strength of agreement or disagreement with survey items was measured with a 4-point, Likert-type scale. Respondents were to read each statement and check the box that most closely represents their opinions, from 1 (strongly agree), 2 (agree), 3 (disagree), or 4 (strongly disagree). The demographic data included such as subject areas, gender, years of teaching experience, and types of ELL training, native language and second-language proficiency. Pilot Study The instrument was subjected to a pilot study utilizing a separate group of 12 high school teachers in summer 2009. The rationale for this was that this group of teachers comprised an appropriate pilot study population because they bear similarities to the subject high school teachers in terms of work environments and scope of responsibilities, yet since they were a distinct group, they would not contaminate the ultimate study population. Because the ages and work experiences of pilot study teachers were similar to those of their counterparts, their reaction to the survey was a useful predictor of the surveys readability and content validity. Definition of terms: Bi-lingual: The ability to speak two languages easily and naturally ESL: English as a second language ELL: English language learner, TESOL: teaching English for speakers of other languages Mainstream: Mainstream in the context of education is a term that refers to classes and/or curricula common to the majority of students. Validity of the Instrument The pilot study was used to assess the surveys readability and as a predictor of content validity. Pilot study participants were asked to complete the following survey. They then answered questions formulated to give them the opportunity to report their attitudes and perceptions of ELL inclusion accurately and fully. This survey uses a 4-point Likert-type scale, 1 (strongly agree), 2 (agree), 3, (disagree), and 4 (strongly disagree). Did the surveys format adequately allow you to express your opinion? If not, explain. Were any items on the survey unclear to you? Indicate and explain if any. Which, if any, items did you find difficult to answer? Indicate and explain if any. In your opinion, which, if any, items on the survey display a bias on the part of the research? Explain. Provide any additional comments that you would like to make. Analysis of respondents comments to the five survey questions was used to reduce the likelihood of any pattern of misunderstanding for any given item and to assess respondents understanding of, or ability to respond to, survey items. Participants and Setting All subject-area teachers from 3 district high schools within a 25 mile radius of this researcher were asked to participate in the survey by mail. The faculties chosen for participation in the study came from the 3 high schools with the largest population of ESL students during the 2008-2009 school year. This was determined by use of public domain resources (www.city-data.com). School A enrolled 24 LEP (limited-English proficiency) students, School B enrolled 26 LEP students, School C enrolled 16 LEP students . This study included high schools with the largest ESL student populations to access the largest number of teachers who had worked with ESL-inclusive class loads. Participants were selected remotely via mail and/or e-mail during the month of July 2009. Data Analysis Survey data was analyzed descriptively. Univariate analyses of the survey data and analyses afforded an examination of the distribution of cases on only one variable at a time (Babbie,1990, p.247) identified participants attitudes and perceptions of ELL inclusion according to the strength of their agreement or disagreement with the survey items. The analyses included percentages, measures of central tendency, and standard deviations. To perform univariate analyses, a numeric value was assigned to each response in the Likert scale-1 (strongly disagree), 2 (disagree), 3 (agree), and 4 (strongly agree). Analysis of the numeric data will be performed with SPSS statistical software. Assumptions In the course of the research study, certain assumptions were made. The following are those which were intrinsic to this study: It was assumed that during this study, participants gender would not significantly affect their perceptions. It was assumed that all respondents would answer all survey questions honestly and to the best of their abilities It was assumed that the sample is representative of the population The instrument has validity and has measured the desired constructs. Impact of ELL Inclusion on Teaching Impact of ELL Inclusion on Teaching CHAPTER ONE Introduction Over the course of time, major laws, policy documents and landmark decisions of the U.S. Supreme Court as well as other federal and state courts regarding bilingual education have shaped educational policy in the United States. The Fourteenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution, a response to Brown v. Board of Education, 347 U.S. 483 (1954), established the constitutional basis for the educational rights of language minority students. Within a decade, Title VI Civil Rights Act of 1964 prohibited discrimination in federally funded programs. Subsequently cited in many court cases, it basically stated that a student has a right to meaningful and effective instruction. In 1974 the US Supreme Court reaffirmed the 1970 Memorandum regarding denial of access and participation in an educational program due to inability to speak or understand English. This action was the result of the Lau vs. Nichols class action suit brought by Chinese speaking students in San Francisco against the school district in 1974. There is no equality of treatment by providing students with the same facilities, textbooks, teachers and curriculum, for students who do not understand English are effectively foreclosed from any meaningful education. The memorandum further affirmed that Basic English skills are at the very core of what public schools teach. Imposition of a requirement that, before a child can effectively participate in the educational program, he must already have acquired those basic skills is to make a mockery of public education (Lau vs. Nichols, 1974). In accordance with what are known as the Lau Remedies, in 1975 the Department of Health, Education and Welfare (HEW) established some basic guidelines for schools with Limited English Proficient (LEP) students. Although there has been much change in terms of public policy, the ultimate challenge of implementation rests upon the teacher. Throughout the United States public school teachers are challenged to meet the needs of an ever-increasing number of English-language learner (ELL) population. By the turn of this last century, the population of students identified as limited English proficient (LEP) has grown exponentially. From 1995 to 2001 alone, the LEP population grew approximately 105% nationwide (Kindler, 2002). According to recent estimates there are 4.5 million LEP students are currently enrolled in K-12 public schools in the United States. U.S. Census Bureau estimates indicate a continued trend of linguistic diversification in the years ahead (U.S. Census Bureau, 2000). Due to a linguistic shift the student population is experiencing, the educational community has had to fix its focus upon multilingual classrooms, and research set in multilingual classrooms has risen in importance. While there are specialists who work with limited or non-English speaking students initially, the students integration into a m ultilingual i.e. mainstream classroom is essential. Hence, teacher attitudes are an important consideration in terms of relevant professional preparation. Statement of the Research Problem Despite the amount of research being conducted in regard to bi-lingual education, there is a lack of information in the educational community regarding teacher attitudes toward including English-language learners in mainstream classrooms. There exists a void in the area of research concerning mainstream teacher perspectives on ELL inclusion. As an array of societal attitudes develop regarding ELLs, so to do teacher attitudes. As members of the communities they live in, teachers cannot help but be influenced by dominant societal attitudes. When teachers internalize dominant societal messages, they bring them directly into their schools and classrooms. School administrators, other school staff and parents all internalize societal messages, creating a school ethos that mirrors that of the community and the dominant order of society at large (Walker, Schafer and Liams, 2004). Of particular interest to this researcher are the experiences of secondary teachers, especially within the Long Island region. Because this area, which despite its cultural diversity has received so little attention from the research community, the design of this study will be driven by the need to help remedy that paucity of research by examining secondary mainstream teacher attitudes and perceptions of ELL inclusion from a regional perspective. Purpose of the Research The general purpose of this study therefore has been to broaden the existing body of knowledge by identifying teacher perceptions of the impact of ELL inclusion upon their teaching, measure teachers perceived impact of inclusion on the teaching environment, and assess teacher attitudes concerning ELLs. This study also provides data which highlights areas which require attention or resolution. Research Questions Upon review of two studies, one by Reeves (2004), and another by Walker, Schafer and Liams (2004) of secondary teachers experiences with ELL inclusion, questions were developed to examine secondary teachers attitudes and perceptions of ELL inclusion in mainstream classes. Upon review of these studies four significant themes surfaced. The Reeves study, albeit larger in scale, provided a sound basis for this treatment. Those salient themes became the following research questions which have guided this study: 1. Inclusion in mainstream classes: What are teacher attitudes toward ELL inclusion in mainstream classes? 2. Modification of coursework for ELLs: What are teacher attitudes toward the modification of coursework for ELLs? 3. ESL professional development: What are teacher attitudes toward ESL professional development? 4. Teacher perceptions of second-language acquisition processes: What are teacher perceptions of second-language acquisition processes? (Reeves, 2004) Definition of Terms There are several terms that need to be defined for clarity of understanding. These are: Bi-lingual: The ability to speak two languages easily and naturally ESL: English as a second language ELL: English language learner, TESOL: Teaching English for speakers of other languages Mainstream: Mainstream in the context of education is a term that refers to classes and/or curricula common to the majority of students. Participants and Setting All subject-area teachers were from 3 district high schools within a 25 mile radius of this researcher have participated in the survey by mail. The faculties chosen for participation in the study were from the three high schools with the largest population of ESL students during the 2008-2009 school years. This was determined by use of public domain resources (www.city-data.com). High schools with the largest ESL student populations were identified to enable access to the largest number of teachers who had working with ESL-inclusive class loads. Participants were surveyed remotely via mail during the month of July 2009. CHAPTER TWO As an array of societal attitudes develop regarding ELLs, so to do teacher attitudes. Although there exists a void exists in the area of research concerning mainstream teacher perspectives on ELL inclusion, this review of the literature will provide a basis for further inquiry. Literature review According to the National Center for Education Statistics (2002), English Language Learners number over five million ELLs in the United States. This number has risen by 57% over the past ten years and shows no sign of slowing. Within the Long Island region (the focus area of this research), schools continue to experience steady growth in the number of LEP students. In 2007 the number of the students having limited English proficiency reached seven-year high. The appearance of these recent demographic changes requires increasingly greater self-examination within the educational community since teaching and learning is indeed a two-way exchange. The proliferation of professional literature throughout the educational community is evidence that the shifting demographic is being explored, and hopefully addressed in a number of ways. According to Ballyntyne, Sanderman and Levy (2008), more and more teachers of mainstream general education classes, who normally do not have special training in ESOL or bilingual education, are faced with the challenge of educating these children. While research exploring the perspective of ELLs is abundant (Cummins, 2000; Fu, 1995; Harklau, 1994, 1999, 2000; Lucas,1997; Lucas, Henze, Donato, 1990; Mace-Matluck, Alexander-Kasparik, Queen, 1998; Valdes, 2001), research concerning mainstream teacher perspectives on ELL inclusion strikingly absent. This section will examine the insights which can be gained from the existing research as a basis for further research. Attitudes Toward Inclusion Although there has been relatively little research in the area of teacher attitudes toward ELL inclusion, a number of qualitative studies exploring the schooling experiences of ELLs have, at least peripherally, addressed the subject. Those teachers chronicled in the studies were portrayed as holding negative, antipathetic attitudes (Fu, 1995; Olsen, 1997; Verplatse; Valdes, 1998, 2001). There were also some positive, welcoming attitudes noted however (Harklau, 2000; Reeves, 2004; Fu, 1995). Olson (1997) conducted an ethnographic study of a California high school, which had seen large demographic changes in a 20-year period. At the time of her research, the school population had shifted from 75 percent to 33 percent over a 20-year period. The remaining students were 26 percent Hispanic, 14 percent African American and 26 percent Asian. About half the students spoke a language other than English at home. The racial composition of the staff was mostly white. Based upon the study, Olsen concluded that typical to the process of Americanization, newcomers to these United States in our high schools undergo academic marginalization and separation. She asserts that there is pressure to become English-speaking and to drop ones native language in order to participate in the academic and social life of the high school. In his study, Fu (1995) concurs, observing that English teachers and untrained ESL tutors used methodologies and had attitudes which could be characterized as typical. Most showed strict adherence to curricular demands, appeared frustrated by the additional workload or lower standards the students possibly represented for them, and in the field of second language acquisition, lacked adequate understanding. Fu further noted that the teachers had low expectations, gave complicated explanations, lacked sufficient time, and used outdated approaches. Valdes (1998), who reached similar conclusions, observed four students within classroom interactions, interviewed school personnel, and conducted independent, formal assessments of Spanish and English language development at the beginning and end of each academic year when possible. Valdes (1998) argues that English language teaching for most immigrant students in the United States is ineffective because it is rarely meaningful or purposeful; uses outdated methods; is often taught by untrained, if well-intentioned, teachers; and erroneously places blame for lack of progress on the student. Fu (1995) suggests that second language learners from the United States are often perceived by teachers as inferior in comparison to English language students who are of a different class. Teacher perceptions of ELLs can affect educational outcomes in a number of ways. This is supported by Harklau (1999) who conducted a study of about 100 ESL/LEP students in a suburban high school in northern California over 3 years. The research compared their experiences in mainstream content classes and ESL classes. She concluded that tracking of ESL learners into low-track content classes can have serious long-term negative educational and occupational consequences. She concludes that much greater interaction between mainstream and ESL teachers is needed. Although teachers in the above studies, were generally found holding ambivalent or inhospitable attitudes (Harklau,1999; Verplaetse,1998), there were notable exceptions. According to Fu (1995), when some teachers were able to achieve curricular goals by allowing the students their own personal and cultural connections to the material, they were gratified by the results. It has been suggested by researchers that a number of factors that could be influential in how teacher attitudes are determined, whether they be welcoming or unwelcoming in nature. Reeves (2004) notes three categories which emerge as preeminent: (a) teacher perceptions of the impact of ELL inclusion on themselves, (b) impact of inclusion on the learning environment, and (c) teacher attitudes and perceptions of ELLs themselves. In a study by Youngs (1999), teachers cite a chronic lack of time to address Ells unique classroom needs. Additionally there exists an apprehension among some teachers based upon the perception that workloads will become unmanageable when ELLs are integrated into the mainstream classes. Verplaetse (1998) adds that some professionals expressed feelings of inadequacy to work with ELLs. The impact of inclusion on the classroom learning environment, has lead to teacher concerns about the possibility that ELLs will in some way hinder class progress through the curri culum (Youngs, 2001), or may even create inequities in educational opportunities for the students as a whole (Platt, Harper, Mendoza, 2003; Reeves, 2004; Schmidt, 2000). More recently subject-area teacher attitudes and perceptions of ELLs have become emergent topics of research, including an unwillingness to work with low-proficiency ELLs as well as misconceptions about the processes of second-language acquisition (Olsen,1997; Reeves, 2004; 2000). Additionally, assumptions about the race and ethnicity (both positive and negative) of ELLs are cited (Harklau, 2000; Valdes, 2001). It is important to note that all of the aforementioned studies were qualitative in nature. Furthermore, the number of teachers as participants was small; few focused primarily upon mainstream teachers. In their quantitative study of 143 middle school teachers, Youngs and Youngs (2001) conducted an investigated the attitudes of mainstream teachers toward ESL students in middle and high schools. In the mainstream, they conclude the most pervasive attitudes toward teaching an ESL student in the mainstream ranged from neutral to slightly positive. Gitlin, Buenda, Crosland, Doumbia (2003) conducted a qualitative study observed 5 ESL teachers, 10 white students, the ESL program director, and a school administrator. Their interviews centered on how these individuals viewed the ESL program, classroom practices, and cultural relations in the school. They identified and analyzed documents on extracurricular participation by ESL students, on school discipline, and on busing policies. In characterizing teacher attitudes, the researchers concluded that Many teachers equate cultural difference with cultural deficiency, a stance that typically leads them to stereotype students as having problems to fix and may lead to less satisfaction and sense of success in teaching (Gitlin, Buendia, Crosland, Doumbia,2003). In addition to lack of experience and training, matters are compounded by a lack of additional communication with ESL teachers. Attitudes Toward Modification According to Valdes (2001), the growing acceptance of an inclusion model for meeting the needs of ELLs is due at least due in part to an increased emphasis on accountability and standards that has been further driven by what Nieto (2002) asserts is a long history of exclusionary schooling, characterized by programs which are peripheral in nature. Historically, the traditional ESL model placed students in ESL courses where the focus was upon sheltered instruction, and recieved limited access to content-oriented curriculum needed to meet their educational needs or to fulfill graduation requirements. Research however suggests that this approach runs counter to inclusion. Harklaus (1994) study reveals that the ESL instruction which was provided did not match ESL students academic needs in mainstream classrooms and that content-area classrooms were not matched with ESLs needs. Harklau (1994) observes that the curriculum of ESL and mainstream classes was disconnected and that the mainstrea m classes failed to engage ESL students in academic language learning. Echevarria, Vogt and Short (2004) note that programs which are well-implemented, cognitively challenging, not segregated, are key to ESL students academic success. Nieto (2002) adds that education should be adapted or modified to meet the needs of ELLs. For an educational model to be inclusive, it must provide equitable access to curriculum, while simultaneously providing for the multi-lingual array of learners i.e. educational methods must make content understandable for students learning English while remaining effective for English-proficient students. Echevarria, Vogt and Short (2004) however, report that high school content area teachers were seldom found to adjust instruction to make curriculum comprehensible for ELL students. Harklau (1994) observes that ELL students had difficulty understanding certain types of teacher talk: Learners had particular difficulty understanding teacher talk which contained pun s or was sarcastic or ironic . . . Learners were also frustrated with teachers who habitually spoke very fast, who used frequent asides, or who were prone to sudden departures from the instructional topic at hand (Harklau, 1994, p. 249). Youngs (1999) cites that some teachers attitudes concerning modification appeared to stem frustration with lack of time, unclear expectations and lack of collaboration with ELL teachers. Attitudes Toward Professional Development Although ELLs spend the bulk of their time in content-area classrooms, little research has been conducted regarding content-area teachers attitudes toward professional development. Of the research that has been conducted, content-area teachers reported that they had limited experience with ESLs and lacked the necessary training in working with ELLs. This is supported by the findings of Youngs and Youngs (2001) study which concludes few mainstream teachers have been prepared to address the linguistic challenges and cultural differences present in diverse classrooms (Youngs Youngs, 2001, p. 101). In an inclusive model, the majority of the students time during the school day is spent in mainstream classes, with the addition of ESL classes as needed. Nieto (2002) maintains that teachers must possess knowledge of the history of specific cultural groups they are serving in the United States. Additionally adaptation of the curriculum for English language learners is also essential. Nieto m aintains that the teacher must develop competence in pedagogical approaches suitable for different cultural groups in United States schools. Researchers have also reported limited institutional supports such as guidance from the school administrators as well as lack of time and resources. Reeves (2004) study reports most content-area teachers would like to help ELLs but tended to vary in terms of their expectations for ELLs. Research also suggests considerable frustration among content-area teachers, concluding that in addition to lack of experience and training, there is also a lack of additional communication with ESL teachers. Youngs and Youngs (2001) maintain that few mainstream teachers have been prepared to address the linguistic challenges and cultural differences present in diverse classrooms (p. 101). As cited by Reeves (2004), a study by Clair (1995) documents three teachers views of professional development. All three of Clairs participants (Grades 4, 5, and 10) opted out of voluntary in-service workshops on methods of working with ELLs. Among the reasons given for opting out were as follows: One teacher stated that the workshops presented methods and materials that were inappropriate for her classroom, while the other two subject teachers maintained already well prepared to work with ELLs The two remaining teachers, maintained that as experienced teachers of English-proficient students, they were already well prepared to work with ELLs. One possibly insightful comment by one of the teachers was, As far as teaching goes, teaching is the same no matter what kind of kids you have (Clair, 1995, p. 191). Although Clairs (1995) study, tapped data from only a small group of teachers, it provided a rationale for more extensive studies of educators attitudes toward ESL professional development based upon a larger sample. Teacher Attitudes toward Language Acquisition Research indicates that mainstream teachers often lack knowledge in the area of language acquisition. Nieto (2002) maintains that all practicing teachers need to develop knowledge in the areas of: first and second language acquisition and the socio-cultural and sociopolitical context of education in the United States. The degree to which teachers are informed in this area may indeed shape attitudes in regard to ELL learning rate and capacity. In her study, Reeves (2004) survey queried teacher perceptions of the length of time that ESL students needed to acquire English proficiency. Most (71.7%) teachers agreed that ESL students should be able to acquire English within two years of enrolling in U.S. schools (p.137). Teacher perceptions that two years is sufficient for full-language proficiency is not supported by research; this misconception may lead teachers to faulty conclusions concerning ELLs language ability, intelligence, or motivation. Although the average student can develop c onversational fluency within two to five years, research has shown that that developing fluency in more technical, academic language can take from four to seven years. This is dependent on a number of factors such as language proficiency level, age and time of arrival at school, level of academic proficiency in the native language, and the degree of support for achieving academic proficiency (Cummins, 1981, 1996; Hakuta, Butler, Witt, 2000; Thomas Collier, 1997). The review of the research literature has revealed several important factors which shape teachers attitudes of ELLs: knowledge of the history of specific cultural groups they are serving; competence in pedagogical approaches suitable for different cultural groups; depth of knowledge in the area language acquisition; and the communication with the ESL teacher. CHAPTER THREE Statement of the Research Problem Despite the amount of research being conducted in regard to bi-lingual education, there is a lack of information in the educational community regarding teacher attitudes toward including English-language learners in mainstream classrooms. There exists a void in the area of research concerning mainstream teacher perspectives on ELL inclusion. As an array of societal attitudes develop regarding ELLs, so do teacher attitudes. Of particular interest to this researcher are the experiences of secondary teachers, especially within the Long Island region. Because this area, which despite its cultural diversity has received so little attention from the research community, the design of this study has been driven by the need to help remedy that paucity of research by examining secondary mainstream teacher attitudes and perceptions of ELL inclusion from a regional perspective. Instrumentation The instrument used was designed to measure both teacher attitudes and perceptions of the inclusion of ELLs. Its four sections correlate to the aforementioned themes previously discussed. The first section Section A- addressed teachers attitudes toward ELL and ESL inclusion. A Likert-scale was used to gauge teachers extent of agreement or disagreement with 16 statements presented in relation to that focus area. Section Bmeasured the frequency of various practices and activities among teachers with ELLs in their classrooms, in relation to coursework modification . Section C utilized open-ended questions in concerns which focused upon ELL inclusion. The rationale for this was that open-ended questions allow for more individualized responses, but they are sometimes more difficult to interpret. The Section Dgathered demographic information. I chose to remain faithful to the format of the Reeves study (2004), because unlike the study conducted by Walker, Schafer and Liams (2004), this ins trument model utilized multiple statements, rather than a singular item, to gauge teachers attitudes. Teachers strength of agreement or disagreement with survey items was measured with a 4-point, Likert-type scale. Respondents were to read each statement and check the box that most closely represents their opinions, from 1 (strongly agree), 2 (agree), 3 (disagree), or 4 (strongly disagree). The demographic data included such as subject areas, gender, years of teaching experience, and types of ELL training, native language and second-language proficiency. Pilot Study The instrument was subjected to a pilot study utilizing a separate group of 12 high school teachers in summer 2009. The rationale for this was that this group of teachers comprised an appropriate pilot study population because they bear similarities to the subject high school teachers in terms of work environments and scope of responsibilities, yet since they were a distinct group, they would not contaminate the ultimate study population. Because the ages and work experiences of pilot study teachers were similar to those of their counterparts, their reaction to the survey was a useful predictor of the surveys readability and content validity. Definition of terms: Bi-lingual: The ability to speak two languages easily and naturally ESL: English as a second language ELL: English language learner, TESOL: teaching English for speakers of other languages Mainstream: Mainstream in the context of education is a term that refers to classes and/or curricula common to the majority of students. Validity of the Instrument The pilot study was used to assess the surveys readability and as a predictor of content validity. Pilot study participants were asked to complete the following survey. They then answered questions formulated to give them the opportunity to report their attitudes and perceptions of ELL inclusion accurately and fully. This survey uses a 4-point Likert-type scale, 1 (strongly agree), 2 (agree), 3, (disagree), and 4 (strongly disagree). Did the surveys format adequately allow you to express your opinion? If not, explain. Were any items on the survey unclear to you? Indicate and explain if any. Which, if any, items did you find difficult to answer? Indicate and explain if any. In your opinion, which, if any, items on the survey display a bias on the part of the research? Explain. Provide any additional comments that you would like to make. Analysis of respondents comments to the five survey questions was used to reduce the likelihood of any pattern of misunderstanding for any given item and to assess respondents understanding of, or ability to respond to, survey items. Participants and Setting All subject-area teachers from 3 district high schools within a 25 mile radius of this researcher were asked to participate in the survey by mail. The faculties chosen for participation in the study came from the 3 high schools with the largest population of ESL students during the 2008-2009 school year. This was determined by use of public domain resources (www.city-data.com). School A enrolled 24 LEP (limited-English proficiency) students, School B enrolled 26 LEP students, School C enrolled 16 LEP students . This study included high schools with the largest ESL student populations to access the largest number of teachers who had worked with ESL-inclusive class loads. Participants were selected remotely via mail and/or e-mail during the month of July 2009. Data Analysis Survey data was analyzed descriptively. Univariate analyses of the survey data and analyses afforded an examination of the distribution of cases on only one variable at a time (Babbie,1990, p.247) identified participants attitudes and perceptions of ELL inclusion according to the strength of their agreement or disagreement with the survey items. The analyses included percentages, measures of central tendency, and standard deviations. To perform univariate analyses, a numeric value was assigned to each response in the Likert scale-1 (strongly disagree), 2 (disagree), 3 (agree), and 4 (strongly agree). Analysis of the numeric data will be performed with SPSS statistical software. Assumptions In the course of the research study, certain assumptions were made. The following are those which were intrinsic to this study: It was assumed that during this study, participants gender would not significantly affect their perceptions. It was assumed that all respondents would answer all survey questions honestly and to the best of their abilities It was assumed that the sample is representative of the population The instrument has validity and has measured the desired constructs.